RED POR UNA AMERICA LATINA
LIBRE DE TRANSGENICOS
BOLETÍN 366
Transgénicos
La transferencia de genes entre especies genera efectos devastadores
03-09-09 Por Sylvia Ubal
Las compañías de biotecnología alegan falsamente que sus manipulaciones
son similares a cambios genéticos naturales. Sin embargo la
transferencia de genes de cruce de especies que se están realizando
(como entre cerdos y plantas, o peces y tomates) nunca sucederían en la
naturaleza y pueden permitir que se transfieran enfermedades y
debilidades entre especies, con efectos tan desastrosos como se han
visto en BSE (enfermedad de las vacas locas).
Las técnicas de ingeniería genética fueron descubiertas en 1950 por
James Watson y Francis Crick y este descubrimiento trajo como
consecuencia el desarrollo de la biotecnología y el conocimiento de la
estructura de la molécula de ADN, donde se almacena la información
genética, que es la herencia, en todos los seres vivos.
Partiendo de este importante logro, aparecen los primeros ensayos de
manipulación genética (año 1980 cultivos transgénicos de tabaco
recogidos en 1992 – China, en 1996 aparecieron 23 marcas de cereales en
Estados Unidos, Canadá y Japón), Manipulación genética se realiza sobre
cualquier vegetal, animal u organismo cuyo material genético original
sea modificado intencionalmente.
El desarrollo y comercialización de éstas nuevas tecnologías están
centrados en grandes multinacionales, que controlan el 85% del comercio
mundial de los cereales y 10 empresas agroquímicas del mundo, que
controlan el 91% de su mercado y se denominan COMPAÑIAS DE LA VIDA; las
siete gigantes son: 1) Syngenta (Novartis y AstraZeneca), 2)
Monsanto/Pharmacia, 3) Aventis (adquirida por Bayer en el 2001, 4)
DuPont, 5) Dow, 6) Bayer y 7) BASF (1, 2 y 3) cuyos estudios
científicos particulares defienden sus intereses, tratando de demostrar
que los alimentos transgénicos, además de ser excelentes, mitigaran el
hambre en los países pobres.
Las transferencias no naturales de genes de
una especie a otra son peligrosas.
Las compañías de biotecnología alegan falsamente que sus manipulaciones
son similares a cambios genéticos naturales. Sin embargo la
transferencia de genes de cruce de especies que se están realizando
(como entre cerdos y plantas, o peces y tomates) nunca sucederían en la
naturaleza y pueden permitir que se transfieran enfermedades y
debilidades entre especies, con efectos tan desastrosos como se han
visto en BSE (enfermedad de las vacas locas).
Las compañías de biotecnología alegan que sus métodos son precisos y
sofisticados. De hecho hay un elemento aleatorio en su método
experimental de inserción del gen. Son inevitables los efectos
secundarios y los accidentes y los riesgos se han evaluado
científicamente como ilimitados. A diferencia de la contaminación
química o nuclear, la contaminación genética no puede recogerse; y los
efectos tóxicos de equivocaciones genéticas se pasarán a todas las
futuras generaciones de una especie.
Los alimentos genéticamente diseñados están
siendo introducidos sin etiquetar
Las compañías de biotecnología han decidido no utilizar etiquetas
alegando falsamente que no hay diferencia material entre alimentos
genéticamente modificados y sus contrapartidas naturales. De hecho, la
inteligencia genética natural de alimentos, acumulada en millones de
años, está siendo alterada. Los gobiernos apoyan las compañías de
biotecnología e ignoran los derechos de los consumidores a ser
informados. Sin etiquetar, las causas de nuevas enfermedades pueden ser
muy difíciles de rastrear. Por un lado, mientras todos los alimentos
deberían etiquetarse fielmente, los alimentos genéticamente diseñados
deberían prohibirse totalmente para proteger la vida.
En el año 1995, la siembra de semilla transgénica es utilizada en
doscientas mil (200.000) hectáreas; seis años más tarde (2001) utilizan
52.6 millones de hectáreas y para (2009) utilizan 186.3 millones de
hectáreas. Siendo Estados Unidos el mayor productor de elementos
agrícolas modificados genéticamente, con el 68% de la cosecha
transgénica mundial, Argentina, con el 22%, Canadá con el 6% y China
con el 3% para un total de 99% sólo cuatro países y dominados por una
sola compañía “Monsanto”. Estos son claros ejemplos de una agricultura
no sostenible. En Argentina la entrada masiva de soja transgénica
exacerbó la crisis de la agricultura con un alarmante incremento de la
destrucción de sus bosques primarios, lo que motivó el desplazamiento
de campesinos y trabajadores rurales, aumento del uso de herbicidas, y
una grave sustitución de la producción de alimentos para consumo local.
Los alimentos que han sido modificados genéticamente son: maíz, soya,
uvas, salmón, arroz, tomate, colza. Las semillas mas comerciales a
nivel mundial son: maíz, soya, eucalipto, algodón y colza,
desarrollados y distribuidos por una sola compañía “La multinacional
Monsanto”. Según fuente de la FAO, los alimentos transgénicos que están
disponibles actualmente son: Maíz, soya, algodón, escherillia coolí
K-12, claveles y dentro de la selección de OMG elaborado al 2009: Uvas,
tilapia, álamos, salmón, eucalipto, arroz y ovejas.
Amenaza global al abastecimiento alimenticio de la humanidad
Las compañías gigantes transnacionales de biotecnología controlan
grandes segmentos del abastecimiento alimenticio del mundo incluyendo
patentes alimentarias, compañías de semillas, y otros aspectos de la
cadena alimentaria. Están introduciendo productos genéticamente
diseñados experimentales sin verificación en un peligroso experimento
global. Si las intenciones de la industria se llevan a cabo, casi todos
los alimentos que llevemos a nuestra mesa se alteraran dentro de unos
años. Este cambio radical en el abastecimiento alimenticio de la
humanidad resultará en muchos problemas irrevocables e inesperados
tales como serias escaseces alimentarias y amenazas para la salud de
amplias dimensiones.
¿Que es Monsanto?
Monsanto se presenta a sí misma como una empresa visionaria, una fuerza
de la historia mundial que trabaja para aportar ciencia de vanguardia y
una actitud ambientalmente responsable a la solución de los problemas
más urgentes de la humanidad. Pero, ¿Qué es en realidad Monsanto? ¿Cuál
es su origen? ¿Cómo llegó a ser el segundo productor mundial de
agroquímicos y uno de los principales proveedores de semillas en el
planeta?. ¿Es Monsanto la compañía "limpia y verde" que proclaman sus
anuncios, o los mismos apenas representan una operación de imagen que
oculta la naturaleza criminal de la compañía? Una mirada a su historia
nos dará algunas claves reveladoras, y puede ayudarnos a entender mejor
las prácticas actuales de dicha compañía.
Monsanto con sede en San Louis, Missouri, Estados Unidos, Monsanto
Chemical Company fue fundada en 1901 por John Francis Queeny, un
químico autodidacta que llevó la tecnología de la fabricación de
sacarina, el primer edulcorante artificial, de Alemania a Estados
Unidos. En los años 20, Monsanto se convirtió en uno de los principales
fabricantes de ácido sulfúrico y de otros productos básicos de la
industria química, y desde la década de los 40 hasta nuestros días, es
una de las cuatro únicas compañías que han estado siempre entre las 10
primeras empresas químicas de Estados Unidos.
En los años 40, el negocio de Monsanto giraba en torno a los plásticos
y las fibras sintéticas. En 1947, un carguero francés que transportaba
nitrato de amonio (utilizado como fertilizante) explotó en un muelle a
unos 90 metros de la fábrica de plásticos de Monsanto en las afueras de
Galveston, en Texas. Más de 500 personas murieron en lo que llegó a ser
considerado como uno de los más grandes desastres de la industria
química. La planta producía estireno y plásticos de poliestireno, que
aún se usan para envases de alimentos y otros productos de consumo
masivo. En los años 80, la Agencia de Protección del Medio Ambiente de
los Estados Unidos (EPA), colocó al poliestireno en el quinto lugar de
la clasificación de productos químicos cuya producción genera las
mayores cantidades totales de residuos peligrosos.
En 1929, la Swann Chemical Company, adquirida poco después por
Monsanto, desarrolló los bifenilos policlorados (PCBs por sus siglas en
inglés), que fueron muy alabados por su estabilidad química y su
inflamabilidad. Su uso más frecuente se dio en la industria de equipos
eléctricos, que escogió a los PCBs como refrigerantes de combustibles
de una nueva generación de transformadores. En el transcurso de los
años 60, los compuestos de la cada vez más numerosa familia de los PCBs
de Monsanto fueron también usados como lubricantes, líquidos
hidráulicos, aceites lubricantes de herramientas, revestimientos
impermeables y selladores líquidos. Las pruebas de los efectos tóxicos
de los PCBs se remontan a los años 30, cuando científicos suecos que
estudiaban los efectos biológicos del DDT comenzaron a hallar
concentraciones significativas de PCBs en la sangre, pelo y tejidos
grasos de los animales silvestres.
Es el laboratorio de biotecnología en la agricultura más grande del
mundo, que introdujo al mercado la primera generación de cultivos
transgénicos, convirtiéndose en el líder mundial en la promoción de
biotecnología en la agricultura.
Sus cultivos representan más del 90 por ciento de todos los cultivos
transgénicos del mundo. Los cultivos resistentes a su herbicida
"glifosato", como la "soja RR" (Roundup Ready) y el "maíz RR", sólo
promueven la agricultura industrial de insumo-dependencia.
Esta empresa dedicada a la explotación agropecuaria donde los
científicos aíslan un gen de la bacteria que produce un insecticida
conocido como "Bt" y lo transfieren al maíz, al algodón, y logran que
la planta exude su propio insecticida tiene el camino libre para
iniciar cultivos masivos y tiene el control de todo el proceso
productivo; que se necesita para que la rueda de la fortuna no se
detenga, y expandir constantemente las áreas sembradas, la tierra rica
para los negocios.
Monsanto despoja a los campesinos
Drásticamente famillas enteras de campesinos pasaron a ser parte de los
agronegocios pero del lado del reverso. Hoy los campesinos, despojados
y expulsados de sus tierras, transitan el desdichado camino del éxodo
hacia los cinturones marginales y empobrecidos de las ciudades.
Los que se quedan a defender sus chacras, huertas y animales, son
cercados y criminalizados por las leyes, los bancos, los jueces, la
policía, las armas largas y las topadoras.
La tenencia de la tierra es una batalla silenciosa que se libra
diariamente en suelos campesinos mientras los gobiernos locales,
provinciales y el nacional hacen la 'vista gorda', mientras que las
trasnacionales se quedan con sus tierras.
Antecedentes
Monsanto envenenó Vietnam. Es el responsable de la fabricación de armas
de destrucción masiva. El herbicida conocido como Agente Naranja, que
fue usado por las fuerzas militares estadounidenses para defoliar los
ecosistemas de selva tropical de Vietnam durante los años 60, era una
mezcla de 2,4,5-T y 2,4-D que provenía de varias fuentes, pero el
Agente Naranja de Monsanto tenía concentraciones de dioxina muchas
veces superiores al producido por Dow Chemical, el otro gran productor
del defoliante. Esto convirtió a Monsanto en el principal acusado en la
demanda interpuesta por veteranos de la guerra del Vietnam, que
experimentaron un conjunto de síntomas de debilidad atribuibles a la
exposición al Agente Naranja. Cuando en 1984 se alcanzó un acuerdo de
indemnización por valor de 180 millones de dólares entre siete
compañías químicas y los abogados de los veteranos, la justicia ordenó
a Monsanto pagar el 45,5 por ciento del total. Por supuesto, a los
tribunales de Estados Unidos ni se los ocurrió que a una mayor
indemnización tenían derecho la sociedad y el Estado de Vietnam.
El Roundup es el resistente herbicida más vendido del mundo.
Actualmente, los herbicidas de glifosato, tales como el Roundup,
representan al menos una sexta parte de las ventas anuales totales de
Monsanto Es comercializado en otros países con diferentes nombres, y es
altamente toxico. Monsanto promociona agresivamente el Roundup
presentándolo como un herbicida seguro y de uso general (no sólo para
los cultivos transgénicos), en cualquier lugar, por ejemplo en el sur
de España donde los agricultores lo llaman “Rondo”) en céspedes,
huertos, bosques de coníferas.
Como Monsanto y los funcionarios de EE.UU. insisten en que es seguro
pulverizar Roundup desde aviones, periodistas y científicos están
comenzando a revelar algunos hechos nuevos.
La serie de grandes multas y decisiones judiciales contra Monsanto en
Estados Unidos incluyen responsabilidades en casos de muerte por
leucemia, multas de 40 millones de dólares por el vertido de productos
peligrosos al medio ambiente, y muchos otros episodios. En 1995,
Monsanto era la quinta empresa de Estados Unidos en el inventario de
vertidos tóxicos de la EPA, con millones de kilogramos de productos
químicos tóxicos descargados sobre la tierra, en el aire, en el agua y
en el subsuelo.
En diciembre pasado, la periodista holandesa, Marjon Van Royen
investigó los informes sanitarios sobre el terreno en Colombia, y
descubrió que "debido a que el producto químico es pulverizado en
Colombia desde aviones sobre áreas habitadas, ha habido constantes
afecciones sanitarias en seres humanos; ojos inflamados, mareos y
problemas respiratorios, han sido las más frecuentemente registradas."
Aunque Roundup es anunciado como "seguro" para mamíferos, incluyendo
seres humanos (pero no para algunos insectos o la vida acuática) por el
Departamento de Estado de EE.UU., ha habido informes demasiado
persistentes sobre problemas cutáneos y de otro tipo después de
incidentes de fumigación involucrando a campesinos y sus animales, para
que sean ignorados. Profundizando en su investigación, Van Royen
descubrió algo alarmante: otro aditivo llamado Cosmo-Flux 411F estaba
siendo agregado para aumentar la toxicidad de Roundup. La mezcla de
Roundup y Cosmo-Flux 411F nunca ha sido científicamente evaluada, ni se
ha informado al público, en EE.UU. o en Colombia, sobre esta práctica
la acción biológica del herbicida, produciendo niveles relativos de
exposición que son 104 veces más elevados que la dosis recomendada para
utilizaciones normales en la agricultura.
Este veraz análisis que realizamos de las implicaciones está
documentado por fuentes fidedignas, nos dejan una visión aterradora de
la capacidad de las transnacionales de afectar el medio ambiente, los
mares, la biosfera, la fauna y el ser humano habitante de este mismo
habitat.
He pensado muchas veces si los dueños de estas grandes industrias no
tienen en cuenta, no solo al hombre, sino a sus familiares y al futuro
de la humanidad. Es tan importante la voracidad de crear riquezas y
hacerse multimillonarios sin ninguna ética moral, que ponen al mundo en
peligro de extinción al destruir las riquezas y hasta la atmósfera que
respiramos. www.ecoportal.net
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RED POR UNA AMRICA LATINA
LIBRE DE TRANSGNICOS
BOLETN 353
"No es posible alimentar al mundo
con un producto que slo se ha probado tres meses en ratas y cuyos
anlisis de sangre son secretos"
Reportaje al Dr. Gilles
- Eric Sralini
13-05-09
Tengo 49 aos. Nac en Argelia y vivo en Caen (Francia), donde soy
catedrtico de Biologa Molecular. Estoy casado y tengo dos hijos. Me
preocupan el medio ambiente y la salud a largo plazo, soy especialista
en toxicidad de variedades transgnicas y herbicidas. Soy cristiano.
1.-Es usted un radical de lo natural?
En absoluto, pero mi profesin es la investigacin en biologa
molecular, cmo se hacen los organismos genticamente modificados (OGM)
y qu efectos tienen en la salud cuando los ingerimos.
2.-Y?
Sabemos que el cncer, las enfermedades hormonales, metablicas,
inmunitarias, nerviosas y reproductivas estn relacionadas con los
agentes qumicos que contienen.
3.-Cuntos tipos de transgnicos hay?
Soja, maz, algodn y colza. Las semillas llevan incorporado el veneno
para los insectos. Las de maz y soja contienen Roundup, el mayor
herbicida del mundo.
4.-Hay muchos alimentos que contengan soja o maz?
S, todos los que contienen por ejemplo azcar de maz (sodas, bebidas
de cola, pastelera, salsas, bombones, caramelos, chocolate...). Y los
animales que nos comemos que han sido alimentados con maz transgnico
(pollo, vaca, conejo, cerdo, leche, huevos...).
5.-En qu dosis son peligrosos?
No lo sabemos, porque no se han hecho los test adecuados; slo sabemos
que nos hacen dao a largo plazo. En general, impiden que los rganos y
las clulas funcionen bien.
6.-Pero se han hecho test con ratas.
S, pero los resultados son confidenciales.
7.-Pero qu dice!
Anormal, verdad?... Hay que pedir a los gobiernos de Europa que hagan
pblicos estos anlisis; y, cuando lo hagan, muchos debates ya no
tendrn sentido porque sern evidentes los efectos de los OGM. Yo soy
uno de los cuatro expertos que han trabajado para la Unin Europea en
el conflicto que se debate en el marco de la Organizacin Mundial del
Comercio entre Estados Unidos y Europa para etiquetar los OGM.
8.-Europa es reticente a los OGM?
La UE ha pedido los resultados de las pruebas a las compaas para
aceptar o no la comercializacin de estos productos, pero las compaas
dicen que son confidenciales, cuando segn la ley de la UE deberan ser
pblicos. Ya hemos ganado algn juicio contra Monsanto demostrando los
efectos nocivos de los OGM que pudimos analizar.
9.-Cunteme.
Para saber si los OGM son txicos, se hacen los mismos test en todo el
planeta; se les da a las ratas dos dosis de maz transgnico durante
tres meses y se les hacen dos anlisis de sangre, a las cinco semanas y
a los tres meses. Los resultados fueron: aumento de grasa en sangre
(del 20% al 40%), de azcar (10%), desajustes urinarios, problemas de
riones y de hgado, precisamente los rganos de desintoxicacin.
10.-Suena fatal.
En Espaa hay 100.000 hectreas dedicadas al cultivo de maz
transgnico (casi todo en Catalunya), es la puerta de entrada de los
OGM a Europa.
11.-Usted tambin ha realizado investigaciones recientemente.
S, sobre los efectos del Roundup (el mayor pesticida del mundo,
utilizado en tres cuartos de los transgnicos) en clulas humanas:
directamente las mata.
12.-Eso es grave.
Los expertos pedimos dos aos de test sobre animales en laboratorio,
tal como se hace con los medicamentos; pero entonces los OGM no son
rentables. Hay un gran combate poltico y econmico sobre este tema, y
hay que decrselo a la gente: no nos permiten ver esos anlisis de
sangre ni conseguimos hacer el test ms all de tres meses. Esto es un
escndalo escondido por las grandes compaas.
13.-Tan poderosas son estas empresas que los gobiernos no pueden
detenerlas?
Es el mayor desafo financiero que jams ha existido. Hay cuatro
plantas que alimentan al mundo a nivel intensivo: soja, maz, arroz y
trigo. Las compaas registran patentes sobre las plantas de estos
alimentos gracias a los OGM. Quien tenga las patentes y cobre royaltis
cada vez que alguien las coma o cultive en el planeta ser el rey del
mundo; por eso las grandes empresas farmacuticas han empezado a hacer
OGM.
14.-Qu miedo.
Las ocho mayores compaas farmacuticas son las ocho mayores compaas
de pesticidas y de OGM. Monsanto tiene el 80% de la biotecnologa del
mundo.
15.-Y por qu lo permiten los gobiernos?
Hace quince aos, todos los gobiernos de los pases industrializados
apostaron en el desarrollo de la industria de la biotecnologa, donde
se ha invertido mucho dinero pblico. Los gobiernos saben que hay
problemas con los OGM, pero si consiguen y publican los resultados de
los anlisis, resultar que todo lo autorizado hasta el momento ha sido
un error de graves consecuencias.
16.-... Lo que hundira cualquier gobierno.
Exacto. Aun as, jams un OGM ha sido autorizado por los ministros de
Medio Ambiente de Europa.
17.-Por qu los cientficos no presionan?
Ni siquiera uno de cada 10.000 tiene acceso a los datos. Yo hace nueve
aos que leo todos los informes europeos y americanos de controles
sanitarios de OGM, y los nicos que hacen test son las propias
compaas.
18.-Usted los hace.
Pocos, son carsimos. Se debera exigir a las compaas que los
anlisis los realizaran universidades pblicas en lugar de las empresas
privadas a sueldo de las compaas.
Informacion secreta
Ha venido invitado por la plataforma "Som lo que Sembrem" y dice que
urge presionar a los gobiernos a que exijan a las compaas productoras
de transgnicos que se hagan pblicos los estudios de los efectos que
estos alimentos tienen en la salud: "No es posible alimentar al mundo
con un producto que slo se ha probado tres meses en ratas y cuyos
anlisis de sangre son secretos". Tiene autoridad o es un loco de lo
natural?... Preside el consejo cientfico del Comit de Recherche et
dInformation Indpendantes sur le Gnie Gntique (Criigen). Durante
nueve aos trabaj para el Gobierno francs evaluando los efectos de
los transgnicos en la salud. Ahora lo hace para la Comisin Europea.
www.ecoportal.net
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RED POR UNA AMÉRICA LATINA
LIBRE DE TRANSGÉNICOS
BOLETÍN 356
Sobre las tensiones
del saber
Ciencia y principio precautorio
Por Norma Giarracca y Enrique Matías Viale *
Hace unos días, el Comité Nacional de Ética en Ciencia y Tecnología
(Cecte) recomendó al Ministerio de Ciencia crear una comisión para
analizar los múltiples aspectos relacionados con el uso del glifosato.
El debate se generó porque un científico de UBA y Conicet difundió
resultados de su investigación en embriones sobre los efectos dañinos
del agroquímico.
La Cecte propuso abrir una segunda comisión, diferente de la que
debería funcionar en el Ministerio de Salud, originada por solicitud
presidencial. Es decir, en estos momentos estarían por funcionar dos
comisiones en dos ministerios elaborando información y recomendaciones
sobre el uso del glifosato.
El primer interrogante que surge es por qué las autoridades
gubernamentales, que deben constituirse como garantes de la salud y el
bien común, permitieron que pasara tanto tiempo y tantas denuncias
judiciales para realizar lo que ameritaba hacerse antes de poner el
agroquímico (y todo el paquete tecnológico sojero) en producción.
Y si esto vale para todos los funcionarios técnicos de gobierno (INTA,
INTI, Secretaría de Agricultura, etc.), es todavía más significativo en
el caso de los miembros del sistema científico, donde circula vasta
bibliografía que señala daños de los agroquímicos en general y del
glifosato en particular.
Es más, llama mucho la atención que en el informe enviado por la Cecte
al ministro Barañao se mencionara como “bibliografía” la que prueba la
“inocuidad” del glifosato y como “denuncias” (restándole status
científico) las que señalan los daños del agroquímico.
Llama la atención que los funcionarios y hombres de ciencia de la Cecte
hayan procedido de esta forma en Argentina, uno de los 19 países del
mundo que produce soja y uno de sólo cinco que lo hace en gran escala,
colocándose así en situación de grave peligro ambiental. Habría que
interrogarse por qué funcionarios y científicos interpretan una pieza
clave del derecho ambiental, el principio precautorio, al revés de lo
que ocurre en sociedades responsables e informadas.
El principio precautorio, incorporado en nuestra legislación a través
del artículo 4 de la ley nacional 25.675, establece que en caso de
ausencia de información o certeza científica y ante la posibilidad de
que se produzcan daños graves e irreversibles deben adoptarse medidas
eficaces para impedir la generalizada degradación del ambiente, sin
importar costos o consecuencias.
La rama del derecho que enmarca este principio es el derecho ambiental,
que es dinámico y objeto de re-interpretación al compás de los
progresos del conocimiento. Es evidente que, cuando se autorizó y
comenzó a utilizar el glifosato, se estaba al menos frente a una
incertidumbre científica, que disparaba la aplicación del principio.
Pero se autorizó y podemos suponer que estábamos en tiempos en que sólo
se respetaban las leyes del “mercado”.
Pasado todo este tiempo de aplicación y tras la aparición de numerosos
trabajos de médicos, estudios sociales rurales, informes de ingenieros
agrónomos preocupados por las poblaciones y la vasta bibliografía
internacional de las “ciencias duras” involucradas y, lo que es aún más
importante, de las reiteradas y coincidentes denuncias de comunidades y
organizaciones sociales en distintas provincias, quedan pocas dudas de
lo que sucede.
Algunos conocedores del derecho ambiental consideran que en nuestro
país el principio precautorio se encuentra perversamente subvertido.
En lugar de que la ausencia de certeza científica genere la obligación
de aplicar medidas preventivas, la falta de certidumbre es utilizada
para “legalizar” la mayoría de los agroquímicos que se usan en forma
generalizada en nuestros campos.
Peor aún, se les exige a las comunidades perjudicadas por estos
químicos que carguen con la ciclópea tarea de acreditar científicamente
su peligrosidad, cuando, por aplicación del principio señalado junto
con otros principios ambientales, son los que introducen la sustancia
química en la sociedad quienes tienen la responsabilidad de probar
irrefutablemente su inocuidad.
En materia ambiental, la prevención tiene una importancia superior a la
que tiene en otros terrenos, ya que la agresión al ambiente y los seres
humanos se manifiesta en hechos que provocan un deterioro, la mayoría
de las veces, irreversible.
En definitiva, se produce “una inversión de sentido” como mecanismo de
producción de “ausencias” –de víctimas y del drama social– en la agenda
de discusión y toma de decisiones políticas.
En Patas para arriba, Eduardo Galeano escribe sobre Alicia en el País
de las Maravillas para interpelar estos núcleos de sentidos invertidos
por la colonialidad del poder.
“Si Alicia renaciera en nuestros días –sostiene– no necesitaría
atravesar ningún espejo: le bastaría con asomarse a la ventana.”
¿Es posible en la Argentina actual modificar lo que Alicia podría ver
por la ventana del campo argentino? Deseamos que sí y creemos que sólo
la política, representada en los tres poderes de la Nación, puede
lograrlo.
* Giarracca es profesora de Sociología Rural en la UBA; Viale preside
la Asociación Argentina de Abogados Ambientalistas.
El dilema ético sobre el financiamiento de la formación de grado y la
investigación en las ciencias de la salud se planteó recientemente con
una denuncia pública de la Asociación Americana de Estudiantes de
Medicina sobre la influencia de la industria farmacéutica en la Escuela
de Medicina de Harvard (EE.UU.), alegando que las universidades
abocadas a las ciencias de la salud deben estar dirigidas a cumplir con
los objetivos científicos de la medicina académica.
La influencia de la industria –regida por la lógica del mercado y el
afán de lucro– no se limita a direccionar las investigaciones, sino que
está presente también en las aulas: algunos docentes reciben onerosos
subsidios por consultorías privadas a los grandes laboratorios, lo cual
incide en la información que brindan u ocultan en sus cátedras sobre
los efectos de los medicamentos fabricados por dichos laboratorios.
En los últimos años, hemos asistido a un proceso de mercantilización de
la educación superior y la investigación científica que tiene serios
riesgos, especialmente para los países con menor desarrollo relativo.
Las funciones esenciales de la universidad son la docencia, la
investigación y la extensión, esto es, se encargan de crear, preservar
y difundir el conocimiento socialmente relevante.
Si partimos de la certeza de que el desarrollo del conocimiento y la
investigación es la condición necesaria para que los países avancen
hacia estados más consolidados de autonomía, debemos comenzar por
priorizar las instituciones que se especializan en dar respuesta, no
sólo a las demandas de la sociedad, sino también a las necesidades de
aquellos sectores más desfavorecidos.
Si acordamos en que es la universidad pública la que se aboca a
profundizar las problemáticas socialmente relevantes para alcanzar un
desarrollo sostenido con igualdad y libertad, las instituciones
universitarias deben mantener su grado de independencia para definir
las prioridades de investigación que la comunidad académica, en diálogo
con la sociedad en la que está inserta, defina como necesarias.
Son diversos los avances que se han logrado gracias a los
descubrimientos neutrales y socialmente comprometidos surgidos del seno
de la universidad pública orientada a las ciencias de la salud, de sus
claustros, laboratorios y hospitales.
Los científicos más prestigiosos de nuestro país han sido formados en
sus aulas y albergan el mayor volumen de investigaciones independientes
(básicas y clínicas) no financiadas por la industria farmacéutica.
La fuerte tradición en investigación propia, la pluralidad y el
compromiso social de los docentes y el conocimiento como capital social
que existen en los hospitales universitarios protegen a esas
instituciones de eventuales influencias corporativas, así como ofrecen
a los futuros graduados una visión más independiente y libre de
presiones financieras sobre los resultados de las investigaciones
publicadas en el mundo.
Mantener esta usina de formación en el pensamiento crítico
independiente y proteger a la sociedad de que los futuros médicos sean
modelados de acuerdo con los intereses de las compañías farmacéuticas o
de los actores del mercado de servicios diagnósticos, exige garantizar
presupuestos adecuados para que las universidades no recurran al
financiamiento privado y puedan sostener dignamente su autonomía e
independencia intelectual al servicio de la sociedad toda.
* Rovetto es especialista en educación superior (UNR), Benzaquen es
médico y docente de Medicina (UBA).
----- Forwarded Message ---- From: TWN Biosafety Info <news@...>
Title : Trend in biotechnology, seed and agrochemicals industries Date : 15 September 2009
Contents:
THIRD WORLD NETWORK BIOSAFETY INFORMATION SERVICE
Dear Friends and colleagues,
RE: Trend in biotechnology, seed and agrochemicals industries
A new book from the African Center for Biosafety (ACB) entitled “Biotechnology, seed and agrochemicals: Global and South African industry structure and trends” provides a global context for the increasing concentration in the agricultural biotechnology, seed and agrochemicals sectors that are dominated by a small group of very large, powerful multinationals.
This context frames South Africa ’s prioritisation of biotechnology as a lead sector for development, as well as the country’s adoption of genetically modified seed. The book also provides information on the major multinationals also active in the South African agricultural input supply sector and describes and analyses the extent of concentration and integration in the South African seed and agrochemical sectors, and the implications of this for sustainable agriculture in the country.
The commercial introduction of agro-biotechnology demands that corporations have three assets under their control: biotechnological know-how; strong intellectual property rights ( IPR ); and a broad proprietary base of high quality germplasm. Biotechnological know-how was mainly located in universities and public sector institutions, which carried out the basic research and development (R&D). IPR on living organisms was a new field and undeveloped. The seed industry was mainly decentralised in a large number of independent, mainly regionally-based seed companies.
In 1980 the US Supreme Court made a decision that living organisms were patentable. This sparked the growth of commercial biotech in the US . Support to biotech start-ups was based on high levels of speculation, which seldom paid off in the short term. Other countries followed later, including China (a mainly public biotech sector), Canada , the EU and Japan . Over time, consolidation in the sector led to domination by a few very large companies. Especially after 2000, the big pharmaceutical companies began purchasing biotech companies that had products near commercialisation. By 2007, the top 10 biotech companies accounted for two-thirds of the sector’s total revenues.
Biotechnology became the engine of innovation in the drug industry.
In comparison to the healthcare industry, agricultural biotech (agbiotech) played a relatively minor role in the development of the sector. Most research and development (R&D) was conducted by the major agrochemical and seed companies, and it was these companies that began investing in agbiotech. Changes in the agbiotech industry structure were largely driven by the desire to control the three assets: biotech knowledge, IPR and quality germplasm. If IPRs are well-defined and transaction costs are low, contracting and licensing arrangements are favoured. Where IPRs are not well-defined, companies might prefer to buy out seed companies rather than license to them. Vertical integration[1] was also favoured where products are complementary or where greater value could be gained from outright ownership of seed companies.
The seed-agrochemicals industries saw a rapid increase in both vertical and horizontal concentration in the mid- to late-1990s in particular. When the dust settled, six multinationals dominated the biotech, seed and agrochemicals sector: Monsanto, Syngenta, Dow, DuPont/Pioneer Hi-Bred, Bayer and BASF. These corporations had their roots in the pharmaceutical and/or chemical sectors. Each of them is in the top 10 biggest companies globally in the seed and/or pesticides sectors. Monsanto and DuPont/Pioneer are focusing their investments in seed and biotech R&D; while Bayer, Syngenta, BASF and Dow are focusing on chemical crop protection R&D. Agricultural biotech is growing rapidly in both China and India , with the latter focusing more on animal health than crops.
Market concentration can be based on the share of the output market, but can also be measured on the basis of innovation competition. IPR and patent control over germplasm and plant variety protection including genetic modification (GM) techniques constitute key nodes in the value chain, and exhibits a high level of concentration globally.
Seed company acquisition has led to a growing correspondence between a company’s share of plant variety protection (PVP) certificates and GM patents, and its share of the commercial seed market. Monsanto, Syngenta, Bayer and DuPont/Pioneer dominate ownership of PVPs and GM patents. Monsanto was also amongst the top 10 publicly-traded biotechnology companies in 2007.
In agrobiotechnology, as with other sectors of the economy, the state is forced to fall in line with the agenda of big business. The push for patents on genetic materials forces the state to develop the expertise to be able to identify whether a gene sequence exhibits novelty and non-obviousness; criteria required to qualify for a patent. The state is either required to divert resources towards an appropriately capacitated regulatory authority, or to allow big business to ‘self regulate’. Either way, the public loses: in the first instance, through diversion of public resources away from other needs; in the second instance, permitting corporations to do what they want without any checks or balances. Another way that private business expropriates public goods is through the research process. A few decades ago, university researchers used to conduct basic research funded by public sources, and then publish the results for public use.
But with the decline in public sector funding for universities - a process taking place across the world as part of the neoliberal project - the private sector increasingly uses the universities as their own research laboratories, through private agreements with researchers.
Corporations insist that premiums are critical incentives for biotech and risk taking. Many products do not make it to commercialisation, and the biotech company aims not only to recover those costs through increasing their profits on products that do make it onto the market, but also to capture as much of the value as possible on those products. The central way in which these premiums are realised is through extensive supply chain control, which includes vertical integration, licensing, restrictive contracts, technology fees, and bundling[2]. Cross-licensing between the major multinationals is common and reveals cartel-like behaviour. In the process of securing profits from GM technology, the multinationals have criminalised farmers for saving seed, and forced those who disagree with their terms into bankruptcy.
Biotechnology and the agricultural input supply chains in South Africa
Biotechnology in South Africa is a very small industry at present, valued at just R1bn in 2007. Human health is by far the largest sector, followed by industrial applications and only then by plant biotech. The South African government has identified biotechnology as a key growth area for the economy. A key part of the strategy is the creation of biotechnology regional innovation centres (BRICs) to act as the core of the development of biotechnology platforms. These are now organised under the Technology Innovation Agency.
Public-private-academic partnerships are core to the vision. The strategic focus is to stimulate the development and application of third generation (recombinant DNA ) technologies.
Private sector investment in biotechnology remains low in South Africa , and it has been left to the public sector to drive the development of the sector. When the National Biotechnology Strategy was released, the private sector was only contributing around 10% of R&D expenditure in biotechnology. One small venture fund, Bioventures, was established in 2002. Funding is mainly from the National Department of Science and Technology ( DST ), the National Research Foundation (NRF), the Innovation Fund, the Industrial Development Corporation (IDC) and the National Department of Trade and Industry (DTI). The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and the Agricultural Research Council (ARC) also have funds for biotechnology research, which they sometimes undertake in partnership with other entities. Mintek, a parastatal that receives about 35% of its funding from government, has a biotechnology division which carries out biotech R&D for
the mining sector.
The agbiotech sector is a small component of the overall biotech sector in South Africa . R&D is driven by the seed companies and the ARC in particular. The use of genetically modified seed has grown rapidly in South African agriculture. The country was ranked as the eighth largest in terms of hectares under GM crops in 2008. However, these are all imported technologies that are licensed for use in South Africa . In 2007 the National Biotechnology Audit reported that 58% of the 1,542 biotech products under development by South African biotech companies were agricultural products. The UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) indicated that 39 out of 89 (i.e. 44%) of biotech applications in South Africa were for genetic modifications.
A number of multinationals see South Africa as a springboard into Africa for launching the Green Revolution for Africa . The continent has not been integrated into the global seed and agrochemicals markets, and it is seen as a potential new market, although one fraught with difficulties - not least institutional and infrastructural. To date the continent is the least significant user of fertilisers, pesticides, hybrid or GM seed, and is only minimally connected to global markets in these products.
The South African commercial agricultural input supply sector is large in relation to Africa but small in relation to the rest of the world. It is around 20th in the global seed market, but a significant developing country in the planting of GM seed (eighth largest area under GM crops in the world) - though still very small compared with the US, Argentina and Brazil. Information on market shares in the South African seed industry is very difficult to come by. However, just 10 companies/institutions control around two-thirds of commercial seed varieties. The largest companies are Pannar, Monsanto, Sakata, Hygrotech, Syngenta, Pioneer Hi-Bred, Agricol, Afgri and Klein Karoo Seed Holdings. The ARC is a major breeder and holder of cultivar rights, but has not carried this into commercial activity. ARC is a public entity and therefore these rights are held in the public domain. Four of the top 10 are multinationals from elsewhere and are also amongst the top
10 seed companies globally. Monsanto occupies second position primarily through acquisitions, and had a 50% share in the important maize market in 2009. Between them Monsanto, Pannar and Pioneer had an estimated 90% market share of agronomic seeds (maize, wheat and sorghum) in 2002.
Private IPR protection is generally considered to be the only incentive for innovation. The flipside of that argument is that exclusive plant breeders’ rights limit innovation by closing off the likelihood of others developing and improving on privately-held seed.
New varieties rely on existing ones. If ownership of varieties is concentrated, and access to these varieties for further research is difficult, follow-on innovations by other institutions and researchers are likely to be discouraged.
A large number of non-GM varieties exist for the crops for which there are also GM varieties available. This means that demand elasticity appears to still be quite high i.e. farmers can still choose to switch to alternatives if prices for GM escalate. The percentage of GM varieties varied from 17% (white maize) to 30% (yellow maize) of total registered varieties available in South Africa in 2008. Three companies hold rights/licenses for most GM traits:
Pannar, Monsanto and Pioneer Hi-Bred. Afgri, Link Seed and Syngenta also hold a few licences/rights. In 2008 GM white maize constituted 56% of the total area planted; GM yellow maize constituted 72% of total area planted to yellow maize; 96% of the area planted to cotton is under GM varieties (83% stacked trait, 9% herbicide tolerant and 7% Bt cultivars), and 88% of area to soyabeans is under GM soya. Monsanto is the only producer of GM cotton seed.
Generally speaking, fertilisers and pesticides are two separate markets at the production node. Unsurprisingly, however, they tend to be distributed through similar channels, given that the end user market (farmers) is the same. The chains have two main nodes: manufacturing and distribution. Manufacturers usually supply to more than one distributor, and distribution agreements are not dominant.
The South African fertiliser industry is relatively small, with the retail fertiliser market valued at around R3.5bn/year in 2005. In the 1990s the sector was rationalised following deregulation and liberalisation. Local production capacity was closed down and South Africa became a net importer of fertiliser for the first time around 2000. The sector is dominated by three corporations: Sasol Nitro, Yara and Omnia, with Foskor a significant input provider. Given the link to the mining industry, and the domination of foreign corporations in the pesticides sector, the fertiliser and pesticides industries are not integrated.
An estimated 70% of agrochemicals (both fertilisers and pesticides) used in South Africa are imported. Eight of the ten largest pesticide multinationals in the world operate in the South African market.
Plaaskem is the biggest local producer of pesticides. The pesticide distribution market consists of local companies who distribute on behalf of the pesticide producers. The most significant distributors are Qwemico, Wenkem, Laeveld Agrochem and Technichem. They are neither integrated with pesticide producers nor with seed companies. There is some vertical integration amongst smaller distributors, including UAP (Plaaskem), Afgri and Ububele.
The presence of the multinationals, especially Monsanto, Syngenta and DuPont/Pioneer Hi-Bred increases the vertical integration of the local input supply sector within South Africa . A couple of local companies, in particular Afgri and Pannar are also vertically integrated to some extent. The other 3 of the ‘Big 6’ multinationals - BASF, Bayer and Dow - have a strong presence in the pesticides sector but not much in seeds. This is related to their emphasis on the agrochemicals node at a global level. Overall, vertical integration is not really the major issue in South Africa at the moment. A bigger issue is multinational domination in the seed and agrochemicals nodes.
This is especially so when one considers how profitability is determined. Two examples will suffice. First, South Africa had a local fertiliser industry until liberalisation when economic borders were opened and multinationals acquired local producers. Because sourcing from other countries might make more economic sense to these multinationals, they closed down local capacity. Another example is Monsanto with soya and wheat. First they bought local seed companies, and then discontinued seed cultivar development either because the market was too small (while they retained the lucrative maize market) or because they could make bigger profits elsewhere. The companies come in, essentially strip assets and restructure businesses to absorb the most profitable parts, and dispose of the rest or allow it to decay. The basis of these decisions has little to do with the real possibility of producing fertiliser, wheat or soya seed profitably in South Africa . It
has to do with the broader profit-driven and expansionary logic of multinational companies. The impact it has, however, is the dismembering of local industrial and productive capacity and cherry-picking of the most profitable parts of the industry. Theoretically consumers benefit from lower prices from competitive global markets in the short term - though even that has proven to be questionable when these markets suddenly collapse. But in the long-term the country loses control over decisions about what to produce, when and for whom; suffers from greater unemployment and becomes increasingly dependent on imports.
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[1] Vertical integration is the process in which several steps in the production and/or distribution of a product or service are controlled by a single company or entity, in order to increase that company's or entity's power in the marketplace.
[2] The practice of joining related products together for the purpose of selling them as a single unit. Often these are made more appealing to consumers as a package by making it cheaper to buy the bundle rather than buying each product separately.
Monsanto GM-corn harvest fails massively in South Africa
South African
farmers suffered millions of dollars in lost income when 82,000
hectares of genetically-manipulated corn (maize) failed to produce
hardly any seeds.The plants look lush and healthy from the outside.
Monsanto has offered compensation.
Monsanto blames the failure of the three varieties of
corn planted on these farms, in three South African provinces,on
alleged 'underfertilisation processes in the laboratory". Some 280 of
the 1,000 farmers who planted the three varieties of Monsanto corn this
year, have reported extensive seedless corn problems.
Urgent investigation demanded
However environmental
activitist Marian Mayet, director of the Africa-centre for biosecurity
in Johannesburg, demands an urgent government investigation and an
immediate ban on all GM-foods, blaming the crop failure on Monsanto's
genetically-manipulated technology.
Willem Pelser, journalist of the Afrikaans Sunday paper Rapport, writes from Nelspruit that Monsanto has
immediately offered the farmers compensation in three provinces - North
West, Free State and Mpumalanga. The damage-estimates are being
undertaken right now by the local farmers' cooperative, Grain-SA.
Monsanto claims that 'less than 25%' of three different corn varieties
were 'insufficiently fertilised in the laboratory'.
******
No hay centristas, slo derechistas abochornados de serlo.
----- Forwarded Message ---- From: TWN Biosafety Info <news@...> Title : Further Evidence of Transgenes in Maize in Mexico Date : 16 July 2009
Contents:
THIRD WORLD NETWORK BIOSAFETY INFORMATION SERVICE
Dear Friends and colleagues,
RE: Further Evidence ofTransgenesin Maize in Mexico
We wish to bring to attention a recent study which reported the results of an extensive survey fortransgenesin landrace Mexican maize, using protein based tests for Cry1Ab (Bt) and EPSPS (Roundup). The study foundtransgenesin 3.1% and 1.8% of samples, respectively, from samples taken in 2001, 2002, and 2004.
The study combined an analysis of seed dispersal dynamics through farmer exchange systems and molecular methods, and follows with a discussion on the implications on population genetics. Based on their results, theassumptions of the Mexican government that transgenic maize field release in areas of commercial production will not contaminate landraces seems unlikely. It also confirmsearlier studies that hasfound traces oftrangenesin maize varieties in various parts of Mexico.
Dispersal ofTransgenesthrough Maize Seed Systems in Mexico
George A. Dyer (1)*, J. AntonioSerratos-Herna´ndez(2), Hugo R.Perales(3), PaulGepts(4), Alma Pin˜eyro-Nelson (5), AngelesCha´vez(6),Noe´ Salinas-Arreortua(7), Antonio Yu´nez-Naude(6), J. Edward Taylor (1,8), Elena R. Alvarez-Buylla(5)*
(1) Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Universityof California Davis, Davis , California, United States of America,
(8)GianniniFoundation of Agricultural Economics, Davis , California, United States of America
Abstract
Objectives: Current models oftransgenedispersal focus on gene flow via pollen while neglecting seed, a vital vehicle for gene flow in centers of crop origin and diversity. We analyze the dispersal of maizetransgenesvia seeds in Mexico, the crop’s cradle.
Methods: We use immunoassays (ELISA) to screen for the activity of recombinant proteins in a nationwide sample of farmer seed stocks. We estimate critical parameters of seed population dynamics using household survey data and combine these estimates with analytical results to examine presumed sources and mechanisms of dispersal.
Results: Recombinant proteins Cry1Ab/Ac and CP4/EPSPS were found in 3.1% and 1.8% of samples, respectively. They are most abundant in southeast Mexicobut also present in the west-central region. Diffusion of seed and grain imported from the
United Statesmight explain the frequency and distribution oftransgenesin west-central Mexicobut not in the southeast.
Conclusions: Understanding the potential fortransgenesurvival and dispersal should help design methods to regulate the diffusion ofgermplasminto local seed stocks. Further research is needed on the interactions between formal and informal seed systems and grain markets in centers of crop origin and diversification.
Citation: Dyer GA,Serratos-Herna´ndezJA,PeralesHR,GeptsP, Pin˜eyro-Nelson A, et al. (2009) Dispersal ofTransgenesthrough Maize Seed Systems in Mexico.PLoS ONE4(5): e5734. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005734
Editor:HanyA. El-Shemy, Cairo University , Egypt
Received February 13, 2009; Accepted May 4, 2009; Published May 29, 2009
Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
viernes, 26 de junio de 2009 El Recinto Universitario de Mayagüez (RUM) fue sede recientemente de una reunión que congregó a científicos de distintas partes del mundo, interesados en desarrollar una especie que contenga los nutrientes necesarios para alimentar a los habitantes de países subdesarrollados.
Según se informó en el encuentro, entre las alternativas de alimentos con las que cuentan los habitantes de sectores como África, está la yuca. Sin embargo, el consumo de este tubérculo, de alto contenido en almidón, ha traído como consecuencia problemas de salud debido a la falta de nutrientes esenciales para quienes la consumen.
Ante la necesidad de desarrollar una especie de planta que promueva el bienestar de quienes la ingieren, el grupo de expertos agrupados bajo BioCassava
Plus dirige su esfuerzo en fortificar genéticamente la yuca. La propuesta es parte de la investigación que subvenciona Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation que se enfoca en atender el problema de desnutrición que existe en África y que cuesta la vida de aproximadamente 6 mil personas al año.
“La yuca es el cuarto mayor cultivo en el mundo y el primero en África. Su alto contenido de carbohidratos no provee la nutrición completa que necesitan millones de personas en el mundo, sobre todo, los que habitan en la región desértica de Sahara, África”, explicó el doctor Dimuth Siritunga, del departamento de Biología del RUM.
Siritunga, quien forma parte del equipo de investigadores de BioCassava Plus, informó que los esfuerzos se encaminan a fortificar biológicamente la yuca, de tal manera que contenga suficientes vitaminas, minerales y proteínas para que quienes la consuman puedan adquirir los nutrientes
necesarios al menos una vez al día.
De esta manera, se enfocan en enriquecer este tipo de cultivo con vitaminas A, E, hierro y zinc; además de hacerlo más resistente a virus y con menor contenido de tóxicos. Con su propuesta, los científicos responden a una de las metas de Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation para mejorar la nutrición en el mundo, al desarrollar una especie de planta de alto contenido alimenticio.
De acuerdo con Siritunga, el plan es uno colaborativo y participan 11 instituciones representativas de Estados Unidos, Inglaterra, Suiza, Colombia, Puerto Rico y África. Además, se divide en tres fases. La primera, trabaja el aspecto molecular y se realiza en laboratorios en Estados Unidos. Luego, en Puerto Rico, ese material transgénico se prueba en campos limitados en los que se evalúa su adaptación al suelo y al clima, en condiciones similares a las del terreno del continente africano. La fase final consiste
en analizar la respuesta entre los nigerianos, población con la que iniciarán las pruebas gratis.
Los participantes de esta reunión anual realizada en el RUM, tuvieron la oportunidad de compartir los avances de la investigación, así como visitar los campos en la Estación Experimental de Isabela donde actualmente se encuentran los sembradíos de la yuca alterada genéticamente. Los participantes tuvieron la oportunidad de compartir los avances de la investigación para fortificar biológicamente la yuca. El encuentro reunió a científicos de Estados Unidos, Inglaterra, Suiza, Colombia, Puerto Rico y África.
RED POR UNA AMERICA LATINA LIBRE DE TRANSGÉNICOS--BOLETIN
341
MODIFICACIÓN GENÉTICA Y TOLERANCIA A LA SEQUÍA
Los defensores de los cultivos transgénicos frecuentemente
sugieren que los cultivos resistentes a las sequías se podrán adquirir en poco
tiempo y que éstos cultivos no sólo pueden ser tolerantes a las sequías y
resistir el cambio climático sino que pueden además mostrar mayores
rendimientos necesarios para "alimentar al mundo". La Campaña GM
Freeze, en un artículo titulado " Modificación Genética y Tolerancia a
la Sequía" (artículo 1), ha investigado estas declaraciones, y sostiene
que los cultivos tolerantes a las sequías no son la respuesta para enfrentar
los retos que el cambio climático impone a los agricultores. Además, resalta
que la tecnología transgénica necesaria para alterar genéticamente a una planta
tendrá impactos en las funciones de otras plantas que pueden perjudicar a la
planta modificada genéticamente.
Además cuestiona la habilidad de los cultivos modificados genéticamente de
producir mayores rendimientos. Hasta ahora, no existen cultivos transgénicos
comercializados que inherentemente aumenten los rendimientos. Así, de acuerdo
con los datos y estudios de campo del Departamento de Agricultura de los
Estados Unidos, la soya tolerante al herbicida (que constituye el cultivo
transgénico más importante de los Estados Unidos) no ha incrementado su
rendimiento al compararla con los cultivos de soya convencional (artículo 2).
Julio 2008
Campaña MG Freeze http://www.gmfreeze.org/uploads/drought_briefing_final.pdf<http://www.gmfreeze.org/uploads/drought_briefing_final.pdf>
Este artículo examina las declaraciones realizadas por los defensores de los
cultivos MG acerca de que está muy cerca la producción de cultivos tolerantes a
la sequía y que esto significará un gran aumento de los rendimientos de los
cultivos necesarios para "alimentar al mundo". También examina
alternativas más sostenibles para enfrentar la escasez crónica y aguda de agua
para la agricultura y horticultura.
Introducción Los defensores de los cultivos transgénicos frecuentemente hablan
de la habilidad de modificar plantas para que puedan ser tolerantes a las
sequías y produzcan buenos rendimientos. Todas las grandes compañías de
biotecnología dicen que han progresado en las investigaciones sobre cultivos
transgénicos tolerantes a la sequía y que estos estarían listos a principios de
la próxima década.ii Monsanto ha declarado recientemente que para el 2030
duplicarán los rendimientos de 2000 cultivos iii. Otros científicos en el campo
de la biotecnología tienen opiniones distintas sobre el progreso de esta área
de cultivos de ingeniería genética. Por ejemplo el Profesor Ossama El - Tayeb,
Profesor Emeritus de Biotecnología Industrial en la Universidad del Cairo,
cuestiona seriamente si la tolerancia a la sequía se conseguirá en corto tiempo
iv: "Quisiera añadir que la modificación genética para la tolerancia a la
sequía y otros estrés ambientales (o por ejemplo la fijación de nitrógeno
biológico) son demasiado complejas para lograrse en un futuro cercano, tomando
en cuenta nuestro extremadamente limitado conocimiento de los sistemas
biológicos y sobre cómo operan las funciones genéticas/metabólicas.
Los que propagan las ideas de que cualquier función biológica puede ser
manipulada genéticamente son optimistas probablemente víctimas de un consorcio
de científicos arrogantes y negocios ambiciosos que tienen poder político y
poder en los medios de comunicación".
Sequías Las sequías no son algo nuevo. Los expertos del cambio climático
predicen que podrían empeorar: "Muchas áreas semi-aridas (ej la
cuenca del Mediterráneo, el oeste de los Estados Unidos, África del Sur y el
Noreste Brasilero) están especialmente expuestos a los impactos del cambio
climático y se estima que sufrirán un descenso del agua debido al cambio
climático (alta confianza) " v
Los impactos de las sequías en la producción agrícola puede ser muy graves. Es
así que en Francia en el 2006 vi, la producción de canola cayo en un 14% a
pesar de un incremento del área de 100,000 hectáreas .
En Australia, la sequía prolongada en el 2006/7 provocó serios descensos en el rendimiento
de los cultivos: "La producción de los tres granos principales que se
producen en el invierno: trigo, cebada y canola se estima que caerá en un 60%
comparado con la cantidad producida el año pasado y más de 1 millón de
toneladas menos que durante la sequía del 2002-2003." vii
Los impactos de las sequías en África y Asia pueden ser graves también. La
sequía en la zona de Sahel de 1972
a 1984 causó 100,000 muertes y 750,000 personas tuvieron
que depender de la ayuda alimentaria para sobrevivir viii. En el 2006 una
sequía en las provincias del sur-centro de China causó la pérdida de 650,000 hectáreas de cultivos y afectó a 6.7 millones de personas.
La falta prolongada de lluvias causa la muerte de todas las plantas y significa
que las semillas simplemente no germinarán. La naturaleza impredecible del
clima estacional es uno más de los dilemas que tienen que enfrentar los
campesinos alrededor del mundo.
Enfrentando la Sequía en la Agricultura Las plantas naturalmente sacan el agua del suelo y la expulsan a
través de pequeñas aberturas en sus hojas llamadas estomas mediante un proceso
conocido como transpiración. Estas aberturas además permiten que el dióxido de
carbono sea absorbido por las plantas. Algunas de ellas han evolucionado para
minimizar la pérdida de agua a través de la transpiración, pero tienden a
crecer muy lentamente, por ejemplo el cactus. Pocas plantas, por ejemplo la
caña de azúcar y el maíz han evolucionado un tipo diferente de metabolismo para
la producción de azúcar llamado Carbón 4 o C4, la mayoría de plantas tienen un
metabolismo Carbon3 C3. El metabolismo C4 utiliza el agua de mejor forma que el
C3 en las zonas áridas calientes. A pesar de ello, las plantas C3 son más
eficientes en condiciones más frías y húmedas.
Los campesinos necesitan que exista una humedad suficiente en los suelos para
asegurar que las semillas puedan germinar. Así crecen las plantas verdes,
frutas, granos o tubérculos y maduran para poder cosecharlas. La sequía puede
darse en cualquier etapa del proceso de crecimiento y puede causar la pérdida
completa de los cultivos o significar serias reducciones del rendimiento.
¿Progreso debido a la modificación genética? Los voceros de la industria de la biotecnología sugieren que los
cultivos resistentes a las sequías están por salir. A pesar de ello, las
plantas de ingeniería genética tolerantes a la sequía están muy lejos de los
avances alcanzados hasta hoy en lo que se refiere a cultivos transgénicos.
Se ha encontrado que la primera y segunda generación de cultivos
transgénicos (tolerantes a los herbicidas y resistentes a los insectos (Bt)) sí
funcionan. A pesar de ello, una vez en el campo, la resistencia a las malas
hierbas y los insectos pueden no ser sustentables.
La tolerancia a las sequías parece involucrar algunos genes que controlan el
paso del agua a través de plantas normales y por ello parece un objetivo mucho
más difícil de alcanzar y puede mostrar complicaciones inesperadas. El sacar el
agua del suelo y hacia afuera del estoma en las hojas es lo que las plantas
hacen normalmente. La mayoría de las plantas pueden aguantar una cierta
cantidad de stress con relación al agua si tienen un buen sistema de raíces,
pero esto puede limitar su crecimiento o retrasarlo. Una propuesta es cerrar
los estomas a través de la transgénesis. Esto puede tener un impacto en el
intercambio de gases vitales por ejemplo: dióxido de carbono y oxígeno que
entra y sale de la planta mediante los estomas abiertos. Tanto el agua como el
dióxido de carbono son necesarios para producir los azúcares que las plantas
necesitan para crecer y producir cultivos, y por eso el cambio de la apertura
de los estomas puede tener consecuencias significativas para la biología de la
planta.
Otra vía posible de modificar genéticamente las plantas es cambiar su
fisiología básica a través de la ingeniería genética convirtiéndolas de plantas
con metabolismo carbón 3 (C3) a carbón 4 (C4). Las plantas C4 pueden mantener
la fotosíntesis aun con sus estomas cerrados y de esta manera ahorran agua. Una
vez más este es un salto fisiológico muy significante para las plantas y puede
tener consecuencias inesperadas. La mayoría de los cultivos y árboles son
plantas C3 y una minoría incluyendo al maíz, la caña de azúcar, el mijo y el
sorgo son C4. A pesar de ello el maíz y la caña de azúcar (en áreas secas)
alrededor del mundo son muy dependientes de la irrigación para producir un
rendimiento viable, demostrando que hasta una planta C4 transgénica puede
requerir una significante cantidad de agua.
Aunque la modificación genética pueda superar estas grandes dificultades - y no
está claro que lo logre - tomará años y será muy costoso. Mientras tanto, ya
existen otras técnicas no transgénicas y tecnologías que son asequibles y son
mucho más baratas.
Minimizar el Impacto de la Sequía Los campesinos hoy en día tienen algunas vías no transgénicas
disponibles para ayudar a los cultivos a sobrevivir y florecer en condiciones
de sequía.
Incrementando la materia orgánica en el suelo El incrementar el contenido de materia orgánica en el suelo
incrementa grandemente las posibilidades de que los cultivos tengan suficiente
agua para que puedan crecer: "Para minimizar el impacto de la sequía, el
suelo necesita capturar el agua de lluvia que cae sobre ella, guardar la mayor
cantidad de agua posible para que la planta la utilice en un futuro y permita a
las raíces penetrar y proliferar. Estas condiciones pueden alcanzarse a través
del manejo de la materia orgánica que puede incrementar el almacenamiento de
agua en 16,000
galones por acre pie por cada 1% de materia orgánica. La
materia orgánica también incrementa la habilidad del suelo para tomar agua
durante la lluvia asegurando que más agua será almacenada. El recubrimiento del
suelo también incrementa la tasa de infiltración de agua mientras baja la evaporación
de agua del suelo." iX
La clave entonces consiste en cuidar el suelo en primera instancia. Esto
significa:
- practicar la rotación de cultivos, incluyendo los cultivos de leguminosas
para mejorar la estructura del suelo;
- evadir los monocultivos;
- evadir el cultivo excesivo;
- evadir el uso excesivo de fertilizantes, que reducen los ciclos naturales de
los nutrientes;
- reciclar la materia orgánica (como el estiércol animal y los desechos de los
cultivos) de nuevo al suelo;
- evadir el uso excesivo de irrigación, porque causa la acumulación de agua en
la capa superior del suelo.
Cosechando agua Existen algunas técnicas para cosechar las lluvias temporales y
tener agua para las épocas de sequía. Por ejemplo las represas pequeñas
contienen el flujo del agua en los canales de los ríos en los periodos de
lluvias frecuentes y permiten que el agua se dirija hacia el suelo, por lo
tanto recargan los acuíferos subterráneos donde ésta se almacena hasta que se la
necesita para irrigación. Las represas pequeñas también previenen la erosión
del suelo y permiten que el limo fértil se acumule. Los reservorios pequeños
para almacenamiento temporal de agua pueden ayudar a conservar el agua para
comunidades enteras. En Sudán se conocen como "hafirs".
El arar la tierra en los contornos de una tierra en declive en lugar de a
través de ella reduce la escorrentía y la erosión de los suelos y permite que
la lluvia filtre en el suelo y los acuíferos. Se pueden construir micro atrapadores
utilizando a la vegetación para dirigir a la lluvia hacia lugares de
almacenamiento para utilizarlos a futuro.
Agroforestería La agroforestería es un nombre común para los sistemas de uso de la
tierra y prácticas donde los árboles perennes se combinan con cultivos y/o
animales de la misma unidad de manejo de tierra" xi. En muchas áreas del
mundo que tienen extremos ambientales como lluvia intermitente y variable esta
técnica puede proveer una forma más sustentable de manejo de la tierra que los
monocultivos a gran escala. Una vez plantados los árboles pueden ser una fuente
de alimento (frutas, nueces y hojas para la gente y los animales) materias
primas (madera o caucho), combustible (leña) y fuentes de almacenamiento de
carbono. Algunas especies de árboles también fijan el nitrógeno y por lo tanto
mejoran la calidad de nutrientes de los suelos. Y ya que tienen raíces más
profundas que los cultivos superficiales proveen de minerales esenciales a la
superficie y permiten que estén disponibles para otras plantas. Además protegen
el suelo de la erosión debido al agua y el viento.
Las plantaciones de agroforestería pueden proteger al agua de la contaminación
con químicos o los suelos erosionados. Los cultivos anuales o perennes pueden
ubicarse entre las áreas forestadas. La agroforestería no se debe confundir con
la forestería a gran escala de una sola especie comercial o plantaciones para
la producción de pulpa de madera, caucho o aceite de palma que puede causar
serios trastornos en las comunidades locales y causar daños ambientales como
pérdida de la biodiversidad o bajar la accesibilidad al agua subterránea de las
áreas contiguas.
Reproducción Tradicional de Plantas Como lo hemos mencionado anteriormente, el agua en cantidad
suficiente y calidad adecuada es esencial para que los cultivos crezcan. Los
reproductores tradicionales de plantas han desarrollado cultivos que toleran de
mejor forma las sequías. Esto significa que pueden utilizar de una mejor forma
la humedad disponible para pasar de semilla a cultivo cosechable antes de que
se acabe el agua. En África el mijo y el sorgo (plantas C4) se desempeñan mejor
en las regiones áridas:
"Se probó que las variedades de estos cultivos que maduran tempranamente
eran muy buenas para ayudar a las comunidades con tierra seca a superar las
"temporadas de hambre". Las "temporadas de hambre" son los
períodos previos a la cosecha, cuando las existencias de los granos se han
terminado. La variedad de mijo "Okashana", por ejemplo que se
seleccionó de campesinos en Namibia madura de 4 a 6 semanas antes que las
variedades tradicionales. Esta variedad se esparció en pocos años a mediados de
los 90's y cubrió la mitad del área destinada al mijo del país. Se calculó que
los 3 millones de dólares de inversión que se necesitaron para desarrollar y
diseminar esta variedad en 1998 estaba dando un rendimiento anual de 1.5
millones. Casi al mismo tiempo en Chad del sur, una variedad mejorada de sorgo
que mostraba un rendimiento del 50% más comparado con otros cultivos locales,
se esparció rápidamente y generó beneficios por casi 4 millones de dólares
anuales. " xii xiii
Los reproductores tradicionales de plantas han realizado progresos con cultivos
como el maíz (que es un cultivo que necesita mucha agua y nutrientes) xiv, la
cebada xv; el arroz xvi; el mijo y el sorgo.
Conclusión El cultivar plantas sin agua es imposible. Cada planta necesita una
cierta cantidad de agua para completar su ciclo de crecimiento y producir un
buen rendimiento para los campesinos. Los reproductores tradicionales de
plantas han producido variedades que ya han demostrado tener un buen desempeño
en condiciones secas y algunos cultivos como el mijo y el sorgo han
evolucionado en condiciones más secas.
La modificación genética hasta el momento no ha producido una variedad
comercial tolerante a la sequía en ningún tipo de cultivo. Los cambios
genéticos requeridos alterarán seriamente la fisiología de las plantas. Estos
cambios pueden acarrear impactos en otras funciones de las plantas lo que puede
ser perjudicial. Puede tomar años el encontrar una solución transgénica viable
- si es que se prueba que es posible - sin embargo la modificación genética no
se enfrentará los retos impuestos a los campesinos por el cambio climático. En
efecto, la modificación genética puede desviar los fondos para la investigación
y el desarrollo de soluciones más sustentables a largo plazo basadas en
un manejo adecuado del agua y el suelo y la reproducción tradicional de las
plantas.
por
Doug Gurian-Sherman
Junio 18, 2008
La crisis alimentaria sale frecuentemente en las noticias. Está además en las
mentes de la industria
de la biotectonología que utiliza las cada vez mayores preocupaciones para
sugerir – contra la evidencia – que se necesitan los cultivos modificados
genéticamente para alimentar al mundo. El alza reciente de los precios de la
comida se debe a un incremento de la demanda, las sequías y las políticas
comerciales mas no a una inadecuada producción global. Pero la población mundial
sigue creciendo, por ello es importante considerar el rol de la ingeniería
genética en lo referente a asegurar alimentos de una manera adecuada, asequible
y sustentable para el futuro. Luego de 20 años de investigación en ingeniería
genética y 13 años de comercialización, los cultivos transgénicos ya han hecho
historia y por ello podemos evaluar su impacto a futuro. Además hasta el
momento no han demostrado un gran progreso en cuanto a una mayor producción de
alimento, como por ejemplo un mayor rendimiento intrínseco, tolerancia al
stress y mejoramiento de la sustentabilidad. Su débil desempeño nos hace
preguntarnos cuánto más de nuestros escasos dólares para la investigación deben
invertirse en esta tecnología controversial. Más aún las regulaciones débiles
tanto de la seguridad ambiental como de los riesgos ambientales de los
transgénicos aún no se han tratado, especialmente en países en desarrollo que a
menudo no tienen una estructura regulatoria que pueda evaluar los cultivos
transgénicos.
Más relevante aún en cuanto a la suficiencia alimentaria son las propiedades
como el rendimiento – producir más en la tierra disponible – y mejor uso de los
recursos especialmente en un escenario de cambio climático. La agricultura toma alrededor de 70% del agua
entonces el utilizar menos agua para cultivar es cada vez más importante. Y
debido a que la actual agricultura industrial degrada el suelo y contamina con
los fertilizantes, pesticidas y gases que producen el cambio climático,
necesitamos encontrar mejores formas de producir alimentos sin degradar el
ambiente. Seamos claros. Hasta este año no existen plantas transgénicas
comercializadas que inherentemente incrementen el rendimiento. Igualmente no
existen plantas MG en el mercado que fueron modificadas genéticamente para
resistir a las sequías, reducir la contaminación de los fertilizantes o mejorar
el suelo. Ni una sola.
El rendimiento del cultivo transgénicos más expandido de los Estados Unidos,
los granos de soya tolerantes a los herbicidas, no ha incrementado comparado al
de los cultivos convencionales no transgénicos de esta planta, según los datos
y numerosos estudios de campo del Departamento de Agricultura de los Estados
Unidos. Los cultivos resistentes a los insectos algunas veces han mejorado indirectamente
los rendimientos al reducir el daño que producen los insectos - en las llamadas
operaciones rendimiento. Pero estos incrementos en el rendimiento han sido
modestos y estudios recientes sugieren que la mayor parte de los mejoramientos
aparentes pueden ser debido a otras causas como la reproducción convencional.
Las innovaciones recientes utilizando nuevos conocimientos de la genética de
los cultivos están mejorando la versatilidad y la velocidad de estas técnicas
de reproducción sin utilizar MG.
¿ Y los beneficios ambientales? Estos también han sido muy pocos.
La ingeniería genética no ha disminuido el uso total de pesticidas (herbicidas,
insecticidas y fungicidas). A pesar de que han habido algunas reducciones
iniciales, los datos recientes de Estados Unidos sugieren que el uso de
herbicidas en los cultivos MG es ahora significativamente mayor que lo que era
previa a su introducción. Las malas hierbas han desarrollado resistencia a los
herbicidas utilizados en los cultivos MG y ahora infestan algunos millones de
acres, forzando a los campesinos a utilizar más herbicidas. De cierta forma los
cultivos resistentes a los insectos han reducido el uso total de insecticidas
pero en general los cultivos MG no han reducido nuestra dependencia a los pesticidas.
La erosión del suelo y la degradación pueden reducirse mediante la reducción de
labranza. Y la reducción de labranza a menudo se logra con los cultivos MG
tolerantes a los herbicidas. Pero los métodos de reducción de la labranza ya
estaban creciendo antes de adoptar los cultivos transgénicos. El Departamento
de Agricultura de los Estados Unidos reportó en el 2002 que la ingeniería
genética no fue un factor importante en la disminución de la labranza. En
muchos casos se pueden obtener los mismos o mejores resultados con menos costos
aplicando la ciencia de la agroecología. El uso de insecticidas puede reducirse
al alternar los cultivos en lugar de sólo cultivar maíz o sólo soya. La erosión
puede ser eliminada con las prácticas orgánicas comunes del uso de cultivos
adecuados entre las temporadas. Estas y otras prácticas mejoran el suelo que a
su vez retiene más agua y ayuda a los cultivos durante la sequía. Los
mejoramientos en el uso del agua pueden lograrse mediante tecnologías como la
irrigación por goteo en lugar de métodos de gasto utilizados comúnmente hoy en
día. Muchos de estos problemas se discuten en un informe reciente publicado por
el Asesoramiento Internacional de Conocimiento Agrícola, Ciencia y Tecnología
para el Desarrollo, auspiciado por el Banco Mundial y las Naciones Unidas, que
concluyen que el rol de la ingeniería genética para mejorar la seguridad
alimentaria en los países en desarrollo debe ser secundario y se debe dar
prioridad a otras propuestas.
Finalmente, la ingeniería genética debería ser regulada adecuadamente para
asegurar la seguridad alimenticia y proteger el ambiente. Desafortunadamente,
los Estados Unidos con el apoyo de la industria ha negado la regulación de
cultivos de ingeniería genética. El Ministerio de Alimentos y Fármacos no
aprueba la seguridad de los productos transgénicos; simplemente los pone en el
mercado. Este Ministerio solo tiene pruebas de seguridad voluntarias y les
permite a las compañías determinar las pruebas que ellas mismas conducen. El
Departamento de Agricultura de Estados Unidos fue criticado en el 2002 por la
Academia Nacional de las Ciencias debido al insuficiente rigor científico en
los asesoramientos de seguridad ambiental y recientemente perdido varios casos
en las cortes federales por sus débiles regulaciones. El propio inspector
general criticó duramente su aparato regulatorio en el 2005. El Departamento de
Agricultura está revisando sus regulaciones, pero los borradores actuales no
toman en cuenta adecuadamente las criticas previas.
El reto de cultivar y distribuir alimentos para un mundo con hambre merece una
atención seria. Hasta ahora los supuestos méritos de la industria de la
biotecnología no están basados en evidencia científica pero su retórica
optimista obscurece nuestras posibilidades de escoger. Esto puede limitarnos de
invertir en herramientas como la reproducción convencional y agroecología que
basándonos en su record positivo de contribuciones deberían liderar las
iniciativas para que el mundo pueda alimentarse a si mismo.
Nota:
Gurian-Sherman es un científico importante de la Unión de Científicos
Preocupados en Washington, D.C.
DECLARACIÓN PRESENTADA A LA ACADEMIA AMERICANA DE
MEDICINA AMBIENTAL – AAEM
SOBRE ALIMENTOS GENÉTICAMENTE MODIFICADOS
Según la
Organización Mundial de la Salud, los Organismos Genéticamente Modificados
(OGM) son "los organismos cuyo material genético (ADN) ha sido modificado
de tal manera que no se produce naturalmente." (1) Esta tecnología es
también conocida como "ingeniería genética" , "biotecnología"
o "tecnología de ADN recombinante" y consiste en la inserción al azar
de fragmentos genéticos de ADN, de un organismo a otro, generalmente de una
especie diferente. Por ejemplo, una combinación de genes artificiales que
incluye un gen para producir la proteína Cry1Ab de plaguicidas (comúnmente
conocida como la toxina Bt), que originalmente se encuentra en la bacteria Bacillus
thuringiensis, se inserta en el ADN del maíz al azar. Tanto la ubicación de
las secuencia de genes transferidos en el maíz como las consecuencias de
la incersión va a diferir en cada evento de inserción. Las células vegetales
que han sido transformadas por los genes insertados, son llevadas a un
laboratorio y se las hace crecer en un cultivo de tejidos o en otros medios
nutritivos donde se desarrollan las plantas que son luego utilizadas para el
desarrollo de alimenticios genéticamente modificados (2).
Durante los últimos mil años se han utilizado procesos de mejoramiento natural
de plantas con seguridad. En cambio, "la tecnología de cultivos transgénicos
deroga los procesos naturales de reproducción, pues la selección se produce a
nivel de una célula única, el procedimiento es altamente mutagénico y
rutinariamente rompe barreras entre géneros, y la técnica sólo se ha utilizado
comercialmente durante 10 años" (3). A pesar de estas diferencias, la
evaluación de la seguridad de los alimentos transgénicos se ha basado en la
idea de "equivalencia sustancial" de tal manera que "si un
alimento nuevo es sustancialmente equivalente en su composición y características
nutricionales con otros alimentos existentes, estos nuevo alimentos son
considerados tan seguro como los alimentos convencionales" (4). Sin
embargo, varios estudios hechos en animales indican que hay graves riesgos en
la salud asociados con el consumo de alimentos transgénicos incluyendo
infertilidad, desregulación inmunológica, envejecimiento acelerado,
desregulación de los genes asociados con la síntesis de colesterol, la
regulación de insulina, las células de señalización y la formación de proteínas;
cambios en el hígado, los riñones, el bazo y el sistema
gastrointestinal. Hay algo más que una relación causal entre los alimentos
modificados genéticamente y efectos adversos en la salud. Existe la causalidad,
tal como se define por los Criterios de Hill en los ámbitos de la fuerza
de la asociación, la coherencia, especificidad, gradiente biológico, y la
plausibidad biológica (5). La fuerza de asociación y la coherencia entre los
alimentos modificados genéticamente y las enfermedades se confirmó en varios
estudios hechos con animales (2, 6, 7,8,9,10,11).
Otro aspecto que apoya la causalidad es la asociación entre los alimentos
modificados genéticamente y procesos patológicos específicos. Múltiples
estudios hecho con animales muestran importantes desregulaciones inmunológicas,
incluyendo la desregulación de citoquinas asociadas con el asma, alergias e
inflamaciones (6,11). Los estudios en animales muestran también alteraciones en
la estructura y funcionamiento del hígado, incluyendo alteración en el
metabolismo de los carbohidratos y lípidos, así como cambios celulares que
podrían conducir a la aceleración del envejecimiento, y a la acumulación de
especies reactivas de Oxígeno (ROS) (7,8,10). Se han documentado también
cambios en el riñón, páncreas y bazo (6,8,10). En un reciente estudio del 2008
se encontró vínculos entre la infertilidad con el consumo de maíz modificado
genéticamente, que muestra una disminución significativa en la descendencia a
través del tiempo y así como un significativo menor peso de la camada en
ratones alimentados con maíz transgénico (8). Este estudio también
encontró más de 400 genes que se expresaban en forma diferente en los ratones
alimentados con maíz transgénico. Estos genes están relacionados con el control
de la síntesis de proteínas y la modificación, la señalización celular, la
síntesis de colesterol, la insulina y la regulación. Los estudios también
muestran daños intestinales en los animales alimentados con alimentos
modificados genéticamente, incluyendo los genes del crecimiento de la
proliferación celular (9) y los trastornos en el sistema inmunológico
intestinal (6).
En cuanto al gradiente biológico, en un estudio realizado por Kroghsbo y sus
colegas con ratas alimentadas con arroz Bt, se demostró que hay una respuesta
inmunológica a IgA (Inmunoglobulina A) específica para Bt, diferenciada de
acuerdo a dosis a las que las ratas estuvieron expuestas (11). Si se hace una
extrapolación de los datos encontrados en animales, es biológicamente posible
que los alimentos modificados genéticamente pueden causar efectos adversos a la
salud de los seres humanos.
A pesar de estos riesgos, la industria biotecnológica afirma que los
alimentos modificados genéticamente pueden alimentar al mundo porque los
cultivos transgénicos producen mayores rendimientos. Sin embargo, un informe
reciente de la Union of Concerned Scientists (12) en el que hicieron una
revisión de estudios académicos publicados sobre el tema, demuestran otra cosa:
"Los varios miles de ensayos de campo hechos durante los últimos 20 años
para evaluar genes destinados a aumentar el rendimiento operativo o intrínseco
(de los cultivos), indican que se ha hecho un esfuerzo significativo en este
campo. Sin embargo, ninguno de estos ensayos sobre el terreno ha resultado en
un incremento en el rendimiento de ninguno de los principales cultivos
utilizados a nivel comercial en la producción de alimentos o de piensos, con
excepción del maíz Bt" (12) Sin embargo, se señaló que el incremento en el
rendimiento del maíz Bt se debe a que se usaron semillas que había sido
desarrolladas principalmente por mejora tradicional.
Por lo tanto, dado que los alimentos genéticamente modificados significan un
riesgo grave para la salud en las áreas de la toxicología, las alergias y la
función inmune, la salud reproductiva, la salud metabólica, fisiológica y
genética y estos no generan beneficios agronómicos tampoco; la AAEM cree que es
imprescindible adoptar el principio de precaución, que es uno de los
principales instrumentos reguladores en el campo de la salud y el ambiente de
la Unión Europea y sirve de base para varios acuerdos internacionales (13). La
definición más utilizada es a partir de la Declaración de Río de 1992 que dice:
"Con el fin de proteger el medio ambiente, los Estados deberán aplicar
ampliamente el criterio de precaución conforme a sus capacidades. Cuando haya
peligro de daño grave o irreversible, la falta de certeza científica absoluta
no deberá utilizarse como razón para postergar la adopción de medidas eficaces
en función de los costos para impedir la degradación del medio ambiente"
(13). Otra definición utilizada a menudo se originó en una reunión sobre
medio ambiente en los Estados Unidos en 1998, en la que declaró: "Cuando
una actividad plantea amenazas para el medio ambiente o la salud humana, se
deben tomar medidas cautelares, aunque algunas relaciones de causa y efecto no
están plenamente establecidas científicamente. En este contexto, el proponente
de una actividad, y no el público, debe llevar la carga de la prueba (de la
seguridad de la actividad)" (13).
Tomando en cuenta el principio de precaución, y dado que los alimentos
modificados genéticamente no han sido adecuadamente evaluados para el consumo
humano, y porque hay abundantes pruebas de los probables daños, AAEM
pide:
* A los médicos que eduquen a sus pacientes, la comunidad médica y al público
para que estos eviten los alimentos transgénicos cuando sea posible, y
que proporcionen materiales educativos en relación con los alimentos
modificados genéticamente y sus riesgos a la salud.
* Que los médicos consideren el posible papel de los alimentos modificados
genéticamente en los procesos patológicos de los pacientes que ellos tratan, y
que documenten los cambios en la salud de sus pacientes cuando ellos dejan de
consumir alimentos modificados genéticamente por alimentos no transgénicos.
* A nuestros miembros, la comunidad médica, y la comunidad científica
independiente les pedimos que recopilen estudios de casos potencialmente
relacionados con el consumo de alimentos transgénicos y sus efectos en la
salud; que inicien investigaciones epidemiológicas para investigar el papel de
los alimentos modificados genéticamente en la salud humana, y que lleven a cabo
métodos seguros para determinar el efecto de los alimentos modificados
genéticamente en la salud humana.
* Llamamos a una moratoria inmediata a los alimentos modificados genéticamente,
la aplicación inmediata de una evaluación de seguridad, el etiquetado de los
alimentos transgénicos, que es necesario para la salud y seguridad de los
consumidores.
Esta declaración fue recibida y aprobada por el Comité Ejecutivo de la Academia
Americana de Medicina Ambiental el 8 de mayo del 2009. Presentado por Amy Dean, D.O. and Jennifer
Armstrong, M.D.
Bibliografía: Genetically Modified Foods Position Paper AAEM
1. World Health Organization. (Internet).(2002). Foods derived from modern
technology: 20 questions on genetically modified foods. Available from: http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/biotech/20questions/en/index.html
2. Smith, JM. Genetic Roulette. Fairfield: Yes Books.2007. p.10
3. Freese W, Schubert D. Safety testing and regulation of genetically engineered
foods. Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering Reviews. Nov 2004. 21.
4. Society of Toxicology. The safety of genetically modified foods produced
through biotechnology. Toxicol. Sci. 2003; 71:2-8.
5. Hill, AB. The environment and disease: association or causation? Proceeding
of the Royal Society of Medicine 1965; 58:295-300.
6. Finamore A, Roselli M, Britti S, et al. Intestinal and peripheral immune
response to MON 810 maize ingestion in weaning and old mice. J Agric. Food
Chem. 2008; 56(23):11533-11539.
7. Malatesta M, Boraldi F, Annovi G, et al. A long-term study on female mice
fed on a genetically modified soybean:effects on liver ageing. Histochem Cell
Biol. 2008; 130:967-977.
8. Velimirov A, Binter C, Zentek J. Biological effects of transgenic maize
NK603xMON810 fed in long term reproduction studies in mice. Report-Federal
Ministry of Health, Family and Youth. 2008.
9. Ewen S, Pustzai A. Effects of diets containing genetically modified potatoes
expressing Galanthus nivalis lectin on rat small intestine.Lancet.
354:1353-1354.
10. Kilic A, Aday M. A three generational study with genetically modified Bt
corn in rats: biochemical and histopathological investigation. Food Chem.
Toxicol. 2008; 46(3):1164-1170.
11. Kroghsbo S, Madsen C, Poulsen M, et al. Immunotoxicological studies of
genetically modified rice expression PHA-E lectin or Bt toxin in Wistar rats.
Toxicology. 2008; 245:24-34.
12. Gurain-Sherman,D. 2009. Failure to yield: evaluating the performance of
genetically engineered crops. Cambridge (MA): Union of Concerned Scientists.
13. Lofstedt R. The precautionary principle: risk, regulation and politics.
Merton College, Oxford. 2002.
14. Eggen, D. Obama targets food safety: president announces new leaders,
groups to upgrade laws. Washington Post. March 15, 2009. p. A02.
Nos llega esta comunicacin hoy desde Bolivia. Georgina fue junto conmigo coautora del libro "Amrica Latina: La Transgnesis de un Continente". Y cmo le explico a ella que hasta el da de hoy ninguna organizacin puertorriquea se ha unido al llamado del Proyecto de Bioseguridad de PR en contra del proyecto del senado #202 que promociona los transgnicos en nuestro pas? Para ms informacin: http://bioseguridad.blogspot.com/search/label/P202
-CARMELO RUIZ
----- Forwarded Message ---- From: Georgina Catacora V. <g.catacora@...> To: Carmelo Ruiz <carmelo_ruiz@...>; Carmelo Ruiz <ruizcarmelo@...> Sent: Thursday, June 11, 2009 3:14:04 PM Subject: Apoyo a la oposicin de cultivos y alimentos GM - Proyecto de ley 202
Estimado Carmelo,
Por medio de la presente, a nombre de la Fundacin Tierra Viva de Bolivia, nos unimos al llamado de rechazar el Proyecto de Ley 202 de PR que permimte la promocin de la biotecnologa.
Te pido nos avises cmo podemos apoyar de forma ms concreta en caso que sea requerido.
Te mandar una nota similar a esta desde el correo e- ed Tierra Viva a fin que puedas tener registrado nuestra direccin.
“ ALGUNAS RAZONES PARA MANIFESTARNOS EN ZARAGOZA ”
Jerónimo Aguado Martínez, Campesino y Presidente de Plataforma Rural
Nos esperan en Zaragoza, la Capital de Aragón acogerá una gran manifestación popular para defender el derecho a producir y a consumir alimentos cien por cien libres de organismos modificados genéticamente. El 18 de abril será un día importante para todos los que creemos que la alimentación es un derecho de los seres humanos y no un negocio. Nos manifestamos un día después del DIA INTERNACIONAL DE LA LUCHA CAMPESINA, sumándonos así a todas las movilizacionesque se desarrollarán en todo el mundo en favor del derecho a seguir siendo campesinos y campesinas, unido al anhelo ciudadano de la SOBERANÍA ALIMENTARIA para todos los pueblos.
Movilizarnos el día 18 de abril significa parar la imposición de unatecnología que se vuelve contra nosotros y nosotras, acelerando los procesos de más expulsión de agricultores y agricultoras de nuestros campos. Los transgénicos son la continuación de la revolución verde y del modelo agroindustrial que ha provocado en el Estado Español la desaparición silenciosa de más del 50% de los profesionales agrícolas en los últimos 25 años.
Desde la perspectiva de la defensa de una agricultura con agricultores y agricultoras no nos queda ya ninguna duda, para qué ciertas tecnologías si son las causantes del abandono de nuestras formas de vida?? .El declive de nuestros pueblos, expresado en el abandono y la despoblación, ha tenido como causa fundamental la implantación forzosa de un modelo agroalimentario que se olvidó de las personas, aquellas que durante siglos supieron compatibilizar la producción de alimentos sanos y nutritivos con la gestión de los ecosistemas donde éstos intervenían.
El desarrollo de la biotecnología y en los próximos años el de la NANOTECNOLOGÍA es la culminación de un procesode industrialización del campo en manos de muy pocas empresas, apoyadas sistemáticamente por las políticas de los organismos multilaterales (BM, FMI, OMC ) y con el beneplácito de la mayoría de los Estados, a costa del empobrecimiento de millones de campesinos y campesinas de todo el mundo y de la provocación forzosa del éxodo del campo a las grandes urbes.
El desarrollo de los CULTIVOS TRANSGÉNICOS seguirá fortaleciendo la misma dinámica, generando cada vez más situación de dependencia tecnológica del productor/ra hacia la transnacional propietaria del avance tecnológico, incluida la dependencia para poder sembrar nuestros campos a través de semillas manipuladas y patentadas. Es decir, nos presionan sistemáticamente para pasar de ser productores de alimentos a consumidores de tecnología que produce materias primas para mercados especulativos.
Pero además, las semillas transgénicas abren el camino hacia el monopolio absoluto de la biodiversidad agrícola y a su vez también el de los alimentos por las mismas empresas que cierran el ciclo: el control de la tecnología para producir y el de los mercados de alimentos para especular.
Los impactos medioambientales están asegurados, suelos, agua y biodiversidad han entrado en un deterioro alarmante como abuso de un sistema productivo del que sólo se piensa en la extracción de materia sin devolverle nada a la tierra.. Los alimentos que nos obligan a producir son de dudosa calidad a pesar de todo el control sanitario que se intenta ejercer desde las instituciones para asegurar la trazabilidad de los mismos.. Los riesgos para la salud de las personas se multiplican, el crecimiento de alergias y tumores cancerígenos son algunos de los resultados de una tecnología que pone de cobayas a las personas y los entornos donde vivimos.
Podemos dar más razones para comprender que el 18 de abril tenemos que movilizarnos contra la ingieneria genética en la Ciudad de Zaragoza, pero al menos existe una que elimina cualquier duda ante las múltiples preguntas que se hace la población:la industria agroalimentaria que impone dicha tecnología avanza sin rubor alguno hacia la privatización de la tierra, el agua,las semillas y los alimentos, convirtiendo derechos ciudadanos en su propiedad privada; y, si no, que se lo pregunten a los mil millones de seres humanos a los que se les niega el pan y la palabra.
En síntesis, los transgénicos privatizan la vida, no producen más, no ayudan a los agricultores y agricultoras, no sirven para mantener vivos los ecosistemas, incrementan el riesgo de la salud de las personas, socavan la soberanía alimentaria de los Pueblos, aumentan la geografía del hambre en el mundo, y SECUESTRAN NUESTRO FUTURO.
The following is the second part of a series called Get Our Milk Off Drugs, written in response to pending legislation that would interfere with dairies who want to label their products as free from genetically engineered bovine growth hormone (rbGH or rbST). Although the bill was passed in the Kansas legislature, it would effect the labeling of every product sold in the state, including all national brands. Therefore, we ask everyone to email Governor Sebelius before April 16, urging her to veto the bill. Furthermore, since Governor Sebelius is expected to become the new Secretary of Health and Human Services, the email asks her to use her new appointment to ban this dangerous drug once and for all.
(See part 1 for the link between bovine growth hormone (rbGH) and cancer.)
“The whole rbGH thing represents fundamental flaws in the regulatory process. . . . It was bad science and bad regulation.”
This was the conclusion of former FDA veterinarian Richard Burroughs, who was a lead reviewer in the approval process of recombinant bovine growth hormone (rbGH) for nearly five years. The drug “was approved prematurely without adequate information,” says Burroughs, whose life and career became a casualty in a perfect storm of industry manipulation and political collusion.
As the only member of the FDA team who had dairy herd experience, Burroughs wrote the original protocols for evaluating the safety of rbGH on cows. The FDA didn’t conduct the tests themselves. It was always the drug’s maker who performed the studies and reported the results. But according to Burroughs, they “would come in and try to negotiate the protocols to water them down.” And when they ultimately presented their findings, Burroughs was shocked to discover, “They just went out and skewed the data.”
The drug’s maker Monsanto, for example, claimed that only a handful of cows developed udder infections, but documents later revealed the actual number to be 9,500. Furthermore, infected cows were often dropped from company studies altogether. And in tests designed to show that rbGH injections did not interfere with fertility, leaked FDA documents showed how researchers added cows to the study that were pregnant prior to injection.
According to Burroughs, even FDA officials “suppressed and manipulated data to cover up their own ignorance and incompetence.” He said that since the science behind the rbGH studies was well outside the expertise of agency employees, rather than admit they were in over their heads, “the Center decided to cover up inappropriate studies and decisions.”
One of the problems they faced was that Monsanto flooded them with huge amounts of irrelevant information, making it hard for them to properly analyze what was important. “We were overwhelmed by the magnitude of the research,” says Burroughs. At one point, the Human Safety Division reviewed forty volumes of submissions in just two weeks.
Burroughs refused to accept compromises on safety and demanded more tests. But in late 1989, he was fired and some of his tests canceled. He says, “I was told that I was slowing down the approval process,”
At a trial that later reinstated him at the FDA, his former boss admitted that Burroughs had been set up. When he rejoined the agency, officials never let him see any rbGH data again and made his life miserable. He soon quit.
Rigging the numbers
Although some FDA scientists vehemently defended rbGH, their claims don’t hold up. They said, for example, that bovine growth hormone does not increase substantially in milk from treated cows. The study they cited, however, shows a 26% increase of the hormone. Furthermore, the cows used for that study had received a substitute rbGH formulation, at only 2% of the normal injected dosage.
The FDA scientists claimed that 90% of the bovine growth hormone in the milk was destroyed during pasteurization, so it wouldn’t matter even if there had been a substantial increase. But they failed to mention that the researchers pasteurized the milk 120 times longer than normal, and even then only destroyed 19% of the hormone. So they spiked the milk with powdered hormone—146 times the naturally occurring levels—heated that mixture 120 times longer than normal, and under those artificial conditions were able to destroy 90% of the hormone.
Canadian Government Scientists Say FDA Evaluation was a Façade
Years after the drug was on the market, Canadian government scientists analyzed the FDA’s approval process and wrote a lengthy and scathing report. It recounted omissions, contradictions, weaknesses, and gaps in the FDA’s approval process. Known as the Gaps Analysis Report, it concluded that the FDA’s “1990 evaluation was largely a theoretical review taking the manufacturer’s conclusions at face value. No details of the studies nor a critical analysis of the quality of the data was provided.”
According to the report, since rbGH was a hormone, “its chemistry should have prompted more exhaustive and longer toxicological studies in laboratory animals.” These are “usually required . . . to ascertain human safety.” Because they weren’t conducted, “such possibilities and potential as sterility, infertility, birth defects, cancer and immunological derangements were not addressed.”
Studies normally used to determine whether a drug is carcinogenic will test two different species for about two years—the lifetime of mice or rats. But Monsanto tested rbGH on rats for 28 or 90 days. FDA official John Scheid later admitted to the Associated Press that the agency had never actually examined the raw data from Monsanto’s rat feeding study; rather they based their conclusions on a summary provided by Monsanto. According to Rachel’s Environment and Health Weekly, “relying on a summary of a study, rather than on detailed data from the study, would violate FDA’s published procedures.”
The Gaps report showed that the FDA “improperly reported” data from the feeding study, arriving at false and unsupported conclusions of safety. When the Canadians pointed out that 20 to 30 percent of the rats fed rbGH developed antibody responses, the FDA was forced to admit that they had accidentally overlooked the antibody study entirely. Furthermore, the Canadian report showed that some male rats which were fed the hormone developed cysts on their thyroid and changes in their prostate gland, which should have prompted further investigation.
The Canadian report also pointed out that injected cows suffer from “numerous adverse effects” and that the milk and meat from sick cows may make us sick. Hormone-treated cows can develop birth defects, reproductive disorders, udder infection, foot and leg injuries, metabolic disorders, uterine infections, indigestion, bloat, diarrhea, lesions, and shortened lives. Cows on the drug for only eight months had much larger hearts, livers, kidneys, ovaries, and adrenal glands. The Canadians wrote that although the significant changes in the health of cows “may have had an impact on human health,” this was not taken into consideration by the FDA when they approved the drug.
Monsanto Hijacks Regulators
Bovine growth hormone was the first genetically engineered animal drug reviewed by the FDA, and there was a lot of pressure to get it approved quickly. Both the first Bush and Clinton White Houses had ordered the agency to promote biotechnology and the agency was apparently doing whatever it took to follow orders.
Disgruntled FDA employees wrote an anonymous letter to Congressmen, claiming that the whole rbGH evaluation process was embroiled in fraud and conflict of interest. For example, they complained of the role of Dr. Margaret Miller.
“[Miller] wrote the FDA’s opinion on why milk from [rbGH]-treated cows should not be labeled. However, before coming to FDA, Dr. Margaret Miller was working for the Monsanto company as a researcher on [rbGH]. At the time she wrote the FDA opinion on labeling, she was still publishing papers with Monsanto scientists on [rbGH]. It appears to us that this is a direct conflict of interest to have in any way Dr. Miller working on [rbGH].”
On April 15, 1994, three Congressmen responded to the letter’s allegations by asking the U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO) to investigate. The congressmen wrote, “The entire FDA review of rbGH seemingly has been characterized by misinformation and questionable actions on the part of both FDA and the Monsanto Company officials.” The letter also describes the previous attempt by the GAO to investigate the rbGH approval process, which they “had to abandon . . . because of the Monsanto Company’s refusal to make available to them all pertinent clinical and related data.” The letter directed the GAO to look into potential conflicts of interest not only for Margaret Miller, but also for Michael Taylor and Susan Sechen.
Sechen formerly conducted Monsanto-sponsored research on rbGH, and then joined the FDA to become the lead reviewer for the drug. Taylor used to be Monsanto’s outside attorney, working with them, according to the Congressmen’s letter, “regarding food labeling and regulatory issues.” The FDA created a new position for Taylor, as Deputy Commissioner for Policy. He was in charge of overseeing the formation of the agency’s policy on rbGH, which ultimately allowed rbGH on the market without adequate testing, and without mandatory labeling.
Taylor even wrote a paper expressing an opinion that if a dairy was to label its milk as rbGH-free, it should also include a bold disclaimer stating, “The FDA has determined that no significant difference has been shown between milk derived from rbGH-supplemented and non-rbGH-supplemented cows.” This was a suggestion, not a requirement. But the Kansas legislature passed a law on April 3, 2009 making it a requirement for products sold in the state—including all national dairy brands. (Ask Governor Sebelius to veto that bill.)
Taylor also oversaw the FDA’s dangerous hands-off policy on genetically modified foods, which also benefited Monsanto at the expense of public health. He eventually left the FDA for the USDA, where he worked on GMO issues. Taylor then took the position of vice president for Monsanto. He now works closely with the Obama administration on food safety.
Milk Controversy Spills into Canada
In 1998, six Canadian government scientists, including those who wrote the Gaps Analysis Report, testified before the Senate that they were being pressured by superiors to approve rbGH, even though they were convinced it was unsafe. They also testified that documents were stolen from a locked file cabinet in a government office, and that Monsanto offered them a bribe of $1-2 million to approve the drug without further tests. (A Monsanto representative told national Canadian television that the scientists had obviously misunderstood an offer for research money. US court documents later revealed that at the same time Canadian officials accused them of attempted bribery, Monsanto was actively offering bribes to about 140 government officials in Indonesia, trying to gain approval for their genetically modified seeds.)
In words reminiscent of Burroughs’ experience at the FDA years earlier, the Canadian scientists told the Senate committee, “pharmaceutical manufacturers have far too much influence in the drug approval process.” Scientists “often feel that their careers are threatened if they stand in the way of a drug they don’t believe is safe.” And “managers without scientific experience regularly overrule their decisions.”
One of the whistle-blowing scientists to testify, Shiv Chopra, revealed that the policy in the department is to “serve the client.” The client, however, is no longer defined as the public: “The client is now the industry.”
“We have been pressured and coerced to pass drugs of questionable safety, including [rbGH],” Chopra said. He “testified that one of his managers threatened to ship him and his colleagues to other departments where they would ‘never be heard of again’ if they didn’t hurry favorable evaluations of rbGH.”
Soon after testifying, Chopra was suspended by his department for five days without pay. The cause, he later told another Senate committee, was retaliation for his testimony.
In spite of blatant efforts within the government to approve rbGH, Canada ultimately banned it. Nonetheless, the health of Canadians is still impacted, as much of their imported milk is from drugged cows US.
The time for banning rbGH in the US is long overdue. Ask Governor Sebelius, who plans to be our next Secretary of Health and Human Services, to do so as her first act.
Planting Cyber Seeds: Monsanto Works to Join the Online Conversation About
GMO Crops
St. Louis Post-Dispatch -- March 29,
2009 -- Earlier this month, a blogger named Brad fired a virtual salvo at
Jeffrey Smith, the author of "Seeds of Deception" and one of the most
vocal crusaders against genetically modified foods.
In
a 600-word post, Brad questioned the credibility of an online petition on Smith's
website, urging the administration of President Barack Obama to require
labeling of biotech foods. He called the petition "sheer political
theater" and prodded the activist for purportedly being a yogic flying
instructor.
More than 30 comments followed in the next few weeks. On one level, the
exchange was just another online debate about GMOs. But this one was notable
because of who initiated and hosted it: Monsanto Co.
For years, environmental and food activists have made good use of YouTube video
and Facebook to skewer Monsanto in the blogosphere. Now, the biotech giant is
turning the tables.
The company's blog, Monsanto According to Monsanto, made its debut Feb. 10, and
it is the company's latest tool to engage critics on hot-button issues such as
food labeling. The title spoofs a documentary by French journalist
Marie-Monique Robin that has been viewed more than 47,000 times on YouTube.
Beside the blog, Monsanto has hired a full-time social media specialist,
Kathleen Manning. It has almost 600 followers on the Web-based short messaging
system Twitter, started a YouTube channel and launched a Facebook page. The
company is also developing a version of its website for cell phones and
Blackberries and is creating MonsantoTV.
Glynn Young, a Monsanto manager in his second stint with the company, is
heading the effort. Before rejoining the company in 2004, Young, 57, worked for
St. Louis Public Schools, where he had a trial by fire in crisis management
earlier this decade after the district slashed its budget, cut staff and closed
schools.
Monsanto's presence on the Web has evolved during the last few years. But only
last year did the company decide to delve into social media as it witnessed the
upheaval of traditional media and realized that its existing outreach vehicle
-- news releases -- wasn't enough.
"We asked ourselves, 'Is this a space we should be participating in?' The
answer was 'yes,'" Young said.
While some consumer companies have used blogs and Twitter to promote their
products, Monsanto views social media as a forum to discuss key issues with
critics, investors and customers.
"There was this big conversation going on (on the Internet), and we
weren't a part of it," said John Combest, a manager in public affairs at
Monsanto and one of the bloggers.
There was one particular instance that opened the company's eyes to the power
of social media. It happened at last summer's Farm Progress Show in Boone,
Iowa, when the company learned, much to its surprise, that some Wall Street
analysts had been following an agronomist's blog that chronicled the progress
of Monsanto's "Golden Acre" plot, which showcases some of its crops
under development.
But just Google the company's name and it quickly becomes obvious that blogs
and social media haven't been kind to Monsanto, based in Creve Coeur.
Monsanto has been in the cross hairs of social activists for decades, going
back to its days as a maker of Agent Orange and PCBs. That didn't change with
the company's new focus on biotech and agriculture.
A decade ago, activists expressed themselves by torching fields of genetically
modified crops and throwing tofu cream pies at Monsanto's chairman. These days,
activists are challenging the company through the use of YouTube videos and
countless blogs that demonize GMOs.
Facebook, the social networking site, is full of anti-Monsanto groups,
including one, Millions Against Monsanto, with more than 22,000 members.
Another group's avatar depicts CEO Hugh Grant with a handful of soybeans. Below
the words: "No Food Shall Be Grown That We Don't Own." It seems
there's a way to revile the company in any language.
Nora Ganim Barnes has studied corporate use of social media at the Center for
Marketing Research at the University of Massachusetts at Dartmouth, and urges
companies to not let online criticism go unchallenged.
"We advise companies to listen to what's being said about them in social
media and get into social media to reply," she said.
One example of a company that effectively did that is PC maker Dell Corp. Dell-bashing
escalated a few years ago, giving rise to the term "Dell Hell." When
the company finally started its own blog, it became the forum of choice for
critics.
Monsanto similarly appears to be trying to steer discussion about critical
issues to its blog so it's easier to influence the debate, Barnes said.
"Now they're controlling the posts, they're answering the questions,
they're directing them to different places within Monsanto and maybe another
site," she said. "They've taken control of the situation."
The company and its critics agreed on one thing: Food is an emotional issue.
Knowing that, Monsanto hopes using social media will help put a human face on
the company and connect with people who might perceive it as a monolith trying
to dominate global agriculture.
Bonnie Azab Powell, a food politics journalist in California and co-founder and
editor of The Ethicurian (www.ethicurean.com), a three-year-old blog about
food, sees that as a challenge.
"I admire their effort and I'm sure they have a lot of money to
spend," she said. But "the hostility toward the company is very real,
and it's not going to be corrected by investing heavily in social media."
There are six dedicated bloggers at Monsanto. But any employee is allowed --
even encouraged -- to participate. A frequent contributor is Daniel Goldstein,
a pediatrician who works as Monsanto's senior scientist in residence.
The "official" bloggers go by their first names and are represented
by personalized South Park avatars. That decision, Young said, "engendered
a lot of discussion at levels above me."
Comments on the blog (blog.monsantoblog.com) are patrolled and answered, but
they'll be permitted to stand unless they contain profanity or personal
attacks. That's true even if they criticize the company, Young said.
"As long as it's trying to engage in a civil way, that's fine," he
said. "But we're not going to let unsubstantiated vitriol go
unchallenged."
Bloggers also watch what is said about the company on other agriculture and
biotech-themed blogs, such as Biofortified.org.
Just last week, Monsanto made a splash at OpEdNews.com. The company
cross-posted three of its blog posts on the liberal website. Also last week,
the site's editor and publisher, Robb Kall, posted a poll for readers asking
them if the company should be allowed to cross-post its blog entries.
"One could argue that getting them into a conversation is a good
thing," he wrote. "Or one can argue that they have billions to
promote their message and OEN should not help them sell their propaganda."
As of Friday, 420 readers had responded; 236 of them voted against letting
Monsanto post articles on the site.
To be sure, Monsanto acknowledges it is still feeling its way around in the
world of Web 2.0. "It's a sea change for us," Young said. "We're
kind of going at this in baby steps."
In the end, the company knows it might not win over its critics. But it will
continue to engage them.
"We're not asking people to love us," Young said. "And we don't
mind critics, but we'd like more informed critics."
Golden Rice, genetically modified to make pro-vitamin A in the endosperm
(the grain remaining after polishing), was announced with great fanfare in
2000 as a cure for widespread vitamin A deficiency in developing countries.
The project had already cost US$100 million, funded by the Rockefeller
Foundation, the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, the European Community
Biotech Programme and the Swiss Federal Office for Education and Science,
and could cost as much again to develop. It was tied up in at least 70 patent
claims on genes, DNA sequences and constructs, a problem only partly solved
in the “ground-breaking deal” worked out by Dubock.
Condemnation was swift and widespread, not least because it was
absurd to offer Golden Rice as the cure for vitamin A deficiency when there
are plenty of alternative, infinitely cheaper sources of vitamin A or pro-Vitamin
A, such as green vegetables and unpolished coloured rice (especially black
and purple varieties [11], which would be rich in other essential vitamins
and minerals, and hence much more nutritious. The UN Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO) started a project in 1985 to deal with vitamin A deficiency
using a combination of food fortification, food supplements and general improvements
in diets by encouraging people to grow and eat a variety of green leafy vegetables.
One main discovery from the project was that the absorption of pro-vitamin
A depends on the overall nutritional status, which in turn depends on the
diversity of the food consumed [12].
The main cause of hunger and malnutrition in the Third World
is the industrial monocultures of the Green Revolution, which obliterated
agricultural biodiversity and soil fertility, resulting in ever-worsening
mineral and micronutrient deficiencies in our food. Golden Rice, like other
GM crops, is industrial monoculture only worse, and will exacerbate this trend,
as well as the destruction of agricultural land, and the impoverishment of
family farmers that also accompanied the Green Revolution [13] (see Beware the New "Doubly
Green Revolution", SiS 37).
GR1 was made with the standard ‘first generation’ genetic modification
techniques, using GM constructs that cause uncontrollable mutations and other
collateral damage to the host plant genome, with many unintended, uncharacterized
effects [14]. In addition, the viral and bacterial sequences, including antibiotic
resistance marker genes, in the construct and in the vectors created for gene
transfer enhance horizontal gene transfer and recombination, the main route
to creating new pathogens and spreading antibiotic resistance.
GR2 represents an improvement in so far as antibiotic resistance
markers were no longer used, but still includes a medley combination of sequences
from plant pathogens Agrobacterium (used in a binary vector system)
and Erwinia uredovor, and from E. coli, inhabitant of the human
gut, which also contains pathogenic strains. We have highlighted the special
hazards of the Agrobacterium vector system since 2003 [15] (Agrobacterium &
Morgellons Disease, A GM Connection?, SiS 38) (see below).
The main reason for Golden Rice was revealed in the unusually
long news feature article [16] accompanying the scientific publication [8]
which stated: “One can only hope that this application of plant genetic engineering
to ameliorate human misery without regard to short-term profit will restore
this technology to political acceptability.”
A detailed audit on the project [14] (The 'Golden Rice', An Exercise in
How Not to Do Science, ISIS Report) uncovered “fundamental deficiencies”
from the scientific and social rationale to the science and technology involved.
It was being promoted “to salvage a morally as well as financially bankrupt
agricultural biotech industry.” The situation has changed little since.
The phase II clinical trials of uncharacterized, unapproved,
experimental GR2 events on children, some of whom may indeed be suffering
from vitamin A deficiency, is morally inexcusable. GR2 has not been assessed
for safety, and there are reasons to suspect it is unsafe.
The Obama administration looks to be a welcome shot in the arm for the scientific endeavor, but the current economic crisis is likely to keep several issues of key interest to biotech firmly on the back burner.
"With this president, a lot of policies are going to change, and a number of them are likely to be exciting for us," says Willy De Greef, secretary general of EuropaBio (Brussels). He points to USDA Secretary Vilsack as but one example of Obama appointments that look positive for biotech. The new USDA secretary "understands what biotech crops can do and has a deep interest in putting agriculture in play, including for energy independence and biofuels," De Greef says. Although no details are available, he adds, Vilsack's attitudes toward and familiarity with biotech-related agriculture issues "are very good for our sector."
The appointment of Vilsack is "nothing but positive for biotechnology," says Val Giddings, a Washington-based industry consultant and former USDA official. "There's not been an ag [USDA] secretary who comes in so familiar with biotech issues and who doesn't have to be briefed for the first time, but is favorably disposed to biotech for farmers. Plus, he respects data and evidence." As for Energy Secretary Chu, Giddings says, "He can't help but advance the [DOE] biotech portfolio. There will be greater openness, and it's nothing but positive."
"On the food side, I expect biotechnology to be a fairly unimportant issue for the next couple of years," says Conko of the Competitive Enterprise Institute. Instead, he and others recognize that conventional safety issues, with the salmonella-laced peanut butter problem the most recent example, will be predominant. One exception directly involving biotech could be a move to reinstate a premarket notification rule for genetically engineered plants, a move that was blocked by Bush but could be brought back by the Obama administration. "There is no reason to think the [Obama] administration would go toward more deregulation, much to my chagrin," he says.
What happens with biofuel development ties in with developments and policies affecting agriculture and, here again, Obama's selection of Tom Vilsack for USDA secretary is drawing praise from biotech analysts. "Agbiotech is regarded as important, but let's have no illusions," says Washington-based consultant Giddings. "The economy and Middle East are first-tier issues, and Vilsack won't get Obama's attention for quite a while. And, even if they [administration officials] could be specific about agbiotech, they wouldn't because they will set it on the shelf and get to it once they deal with other stuff."
In terms of regulatory policies affecting genetically modified crops, little is expected to change anytime soon during the Obama presidency, except perhaps for a greater emphasis on transparency. "It is likely that the Obama administration will be more open than Bush's to a wide range of stakeholders," says Gregory Jaffe, who directs the Biotechnology Project at the Washington-based Center for Science in the Public Interest. More generally, the new administration is more likely to seek additional regulatory authority or even to ask Congress to amend laws in cases where rule-making becomes too much of a stretch for those already on the books. However, he adds, with so many other pressing food-safety issues to face having to do with microbially or
chemically contaminated products, "I don't think biotech foods will be high on Obama's agenda."
"Expect more scrutiny of new varieties and more disclosures and transparency about biotechnology in food and agriculture," agrees Mark Mansour, an attorney with Bryan Cave (Washington, DC, USA). He, too, does not anticipate "much change" from recent policies in the near term, except for "some concessions to watchdog groups. But this will take a while, and will be expressed in due course."
One area where agricultural policy might change course is internationally, particularly with Secretary of State Clinton revitalizing international outreach programs, according to Mansour. This could take shape as an "aggressive engagement of USDA and USAID [Agency for International Development] with developing countries in Africa and other parts of the world, using agriculture as a means of engagement," he says. Unlike the Bush administration, for which such programs were, at best, "an adjunct to security, this [Obama] administration could see agricultural biotechnology as a constructive tool." Of course, "there will be obstacles to overcome, but a lot of opposition to biotechnology could melt with a prolonged recession."
"We're spending about $22 billion per year for the region [Africa], and candidate Obama called for doubling resources, and to put agricultural resources among the top ten," says Robert Paarlberg of Wellesley College (Wellesley, MA, USA), and author of Starved for Science: How Biotechnology is Being Kept out of Africa. "Science-based assistance does seem to have a voice." However, biotech will not soon make inroads into African agriculture because so many countries there remain dominated by Europe through custom and because Europe provides them much more assistance than does the United States, he adds. Thus, although USAID "has tried to throw its weight around, that doesn't work in Africa."
"The EU approach has helped keep African countries from adopting GM [genetically modified] crops," agrees De Greef of EuropaBio. "We hope if the EU and US become less adversarial, it could remove pressure from Africa, which feels forced to choose between US or EU regulations."
In terms of global agbiotech disputes, there are "tricky dossiers" to be faced, De Greef says. Even though the US won a round against the EU in a long-standing World Trade Organization (Geneva) case about genetically modified organism imports, "no official appeal" from the EU has been filed yet, he says. "If EU does not appeal or comply, the US, Argentina and Canada can take unilateral measures, but the US probably will prefer to negotiate, which seems more Obama's style. I'd like to see agreements rather than litigation, and a real victory would be to have science-based regulations."
---------- Forwarded message ---------- From: Brian Tokar<briant@...>
Right to national GMO bans upheld: European Commission defeated
Friends of the Earth Europe press release, 2 March 2009.
Brussels - Today, the European Commission was defeated in its latest attempt to force two countries to drop bans on controversial genetically modified maize [1]. It was the second and third time that Hungary and Austria respectively had come under attack by the European Commission for refusing to grow GM maize. Friends of the Earth has welcomed the vote.
Helen Holder, European GMO campaign coordinator at Friends of the Earth Europe said:
"The European Commission has once again failed to force countries to lift their national GMO bans. Today's vote is a clear message that European countries will not be bullied into taking unsound decisions regarding their environment, their farming and their citizens' health."
"The Commission must now abandon its unpopular proposals once and for all and get down to the real work of improving GMO risk assessments in the EU, as Ministers have requested."
Under EU GMO laws, countries are allowed to ban individual GM crops for environmental and health reasons [2]. There are a number of reasons why these bans should not be lifted:
• The effects of Monsanto's genetically modified maize MON 810, which is engineered to produce a toxin to kill insects, are uncertain and controversial [3]
• European Environment Ministers [4] concluded last December that GMO risk assessment in the EU is not fulfilling legal requirements, that long term impacts are not been assessed, and that crops such as those being voted on today should also be assessed under EU pesticide laws because of the toxin they release. The European Commission's proposal to lift the bans completely disregarded this recent agreement.
• MON810 is currently being re-assessed at EU level as required under EU law. No national bans should be lifted under a full, independent and good quality review [5]
Pressure has been building in the EU for GM crops to be grown. Biotech companies launched legal action in order to get more GM crops put to the vote in the EU for cultivation [6], whilst the pro-GMO commission president, JosÈ Manuel Barroso set up a high level group on GMOs last summer to push member states to vote in favour of GM crops [7].
Contact:
Helen Holder, Coordinator of tthe Friends of the Earth Europe GMOs campaign:
Tel: +32 2542 6182 and +32 474 857638 (Belgian mobile), helen.holder@...
Notes:
[1] The GM crops banned in the two countries are Monsanto's genetically modified maize MON810. Austria has also banned Bayer Crops Science maize T25. It is the third time that the Commission has tried to force Austria to drop its bans, and the second time for Hungary In practice, only Monsanto's GM maize MON810 is authorised for cultivation in the EU. The other maize, T25 that Austria has also banned is no longer authorised for cultivation. Bayer CropScience have a new request for cultivation in the EU pipeline which is why the ban is still "on the table"
[2] Called the "Safeguard Clause" under Directive 2001/18
[3] Peer reviewed research has demonstrated negative effects on non-target organisms, on soil health and on aquatic ecosystems in rivers. 'Bt crops' also cause insect resistance to the toxin they produce thus potentially posing problems for farmers.
References:
Baumgarte, S. & Tebbe, C.C. 2005. Field studies on the environmental fate of the Cry1Ab Bt-toxin produced by transgenic maize (MON810) and its effect on bacterial communities in the maize rhizosphere. Molecular Ecology 14: 2539-2551.
Stotzky, G. 2004. Persistence and biological activity in soil of the insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis, especially from transgenic plants. Plant and Soil 266: 77-89.
Zwahlen, C. Hilbeck, A. Gugerli, P. & Nentwig, W. 2003. Degradation of the Cry1Ab protein within transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis corn tissue in the field. Molecular Ecology 12: 765-775.
Rosi-Marshall, E.J., Tank, J.L., Royer, T.V., Whiles, M.R., Evans-White, M., Chambers, C., Griffiths, N.A., Pokelsek, J. & Stephen, M.L. 2007. Toxins in transgenic crop byproducts may affect headwater stream ecosystems. Proceedings National Academy of Sciences of the USA 41: 16204-16208.
B¯hn, T., Primicerio, R., Hessen, D.O. & Traavik, T. 2008. Reduced fitness of Daphnia magna fed a Bt-transgenic maize variety. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology DOI 10.1007/s00244-008-9150-5.
Prasifka, P.L., Hellmich, R.L., Prasifka, J.R. & Lewis, L.C. 2007. Effects of Cry1Ab-expressing corn anthers on the movement of monarch butterfly larvae. Environmental Entomology 36:228-233.
Andow, D.A. and A. Hilbeck. 2004. Science-based risk assessment for non-target effects of transgenic crops. Bioscience 54: 637-649.
Obrist, L.B., Dutton, A., Romeis, J. & Bigler, F. 2006. Biological activity of Cry1Ab toxin expressed by Bt maize following ingestion by herbivorous arthropods and exposure of the predator Chrysoperla carnea. BioControl 51: 31-48.
[5] Under EU GMO laws, after a GMO has been on the market for 10 years, a re-approval must be carried out in order to re-assess environmental and health impacts.
[6] Legal action has been brought against the Commission by Pioneer which produced genetically modified maize 1507 that it wants to be grown in the EU, and by BASF that produces a GM potato that it also wants to get grown in the EU
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Update from the GM-Free Brazil Campaign
###########################
Brazil, Rio de Janeiro, February 17, 2009
GM maize starts to flood the market; local seeds each time more strategic
The mainstream Brazilian press has enthusiastically reported that transgenic maize, released by the CTNBio (National Technical Biosafety Committee / Ministry of Science and Technology) in 2008, is due to arrive big time in this year's crop. Specialized supplements in the major newspapers have been announcing repeatedly that more and more 'options' of GM maize varieties are starting to become available to farmers on the market.
AS-PTA analyzed the list of varieties registered at the Ministry of Agriculture in 2008 and 2009 and observed that the stage is set for a flood of transgenic maize seeds into the country.
Of the 261 new varieties registered since 2008, 146 are transgenic - in other words, already in the first year since the release of GM technology for maize, 56% of the seeds set to enter the market are transgenic!
In fact, the cause of this phenomenon is that the commercial seed market in Brazil has undergone an incredible process of concentration and transnationalization over the last decade. Today a small group of multinational companies -- most of which also work in the agrochemical sector -- dominate the market.
The analysis of the varieties indicated by the Climate Risk Agricultural Zoning gives an idea of the concentration of this market. The Zoning is a technological package for climate risk management, developed and published by the Ministry of Agriculture, which each year indicates the varieties adapted to the various regions of the country and that possess certified seeds. It provides guidelines for official agricultural loans and for private and public rural insurance policies.
In the Agricultural Zoning for the 2007/08 harvest, the Ministry of Agriculture included the indication of 310 maize varieties. Of these, 181 came from just 5 multinational companies. In other words, in the Agricultural Zoning alone, 58% of maize seeds belonged to large multinationals.
It should be emphasized, however, that the real market concentration must be significantly higher than that depicted by the Zoning. For example, although Monsanto owned 20% of the maize cultigens indicated in the Zoning for the 2007/08 harvest, company press releases in July 2008 indicated that its share of the market had risen to 40% following its purchase of the Brazilian company Agroeste. On the other hand, it is estimated that the maize cultigens developed by Embrapa and commercialized by a group of small national companies (Unimilho) amounts to no more than 5% of the national market, although the institution accounted for 14% of the maize cultigens in the 2007/08 Zoning.
The consequences of this scenario are also fairly obvious. If the aggressive attempts by these companies to flood the market with transgenic varieties of maize seeds continue unabated, in a short time Brazilian farmers will have an extremely limited range of non-GM seeds from which to select. This has been the pattern in other countries. Indeed this is the way in which this disastrous technology has spread across the world.
The companies boast that GM crops are a success with farmers and that their widespread adoption in the countries in which they have been authorized attests to their advantages. But this omits the fact that this adoption has been forced through and that farmers disappointed with the poor performance of the crops and the unfulfilled promises of the companies find it difficult to return to the conventional planting system due to the lack of alternative seeds on the market.
Another expected result of this phenomenon is the rise in prices of seeds and other inputs associated with their cultivation. Since the release of GM soybeans in Brazil, the price of glyphosate (the main active component of the Roundup herbicide, used with the Roundup Ready transgenic crops) has increased by almost 100%.
Farmers are doubly trapped: not only forced to buy GM seeds due to the lack of other options on the market, but also required to pay increasingly higher prices for inputs, lowering their profit margins.
There is a solution, though. This depends on the resistance and organization of the people who live from agriculture. Concentrated and collective action is needed to preserve the traditional seeds of local farmers, which have been cultivated, improved and conserved over many generations, adapted to the systems of cultivation and soil and climate regions of the country's different regions.
Collective action is needed to prevent the local varieties from becoming contaminated by the transgenes, including the promotion of exchange networks and the multiplication and diffusion of these seeds.
Brazilian farmers will only be autonomous if they can produce their own quality seeds, and this autonomy depends on the food security and sovereignty of the country's people.
========================================================
GM-FREE BRAZIL - Published by AS-PTA Assessoria e Servios a Projetos em Agricultura Alternativa. The GM-Free Brazil Campaign is a collective of Brazilian NGOs, social movements and individuals.
AS-PTA an independent, not-for-profit Brazilian organisation dedicated to promoting the sustainable rural development. Head office: Rua da Candelria, 9/6 andar/ CEP: 20.091-020, Centro, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil. Phone: 0055-21-2253-8317 Fax: 0055-21-2233-363
----- Forwarded Message ---- From: TWN Biosafety Info <news@...>
Contents:
THIRD WORLD NETWORK BIOSAFETY INFORMATION SERVICE
Dear Friends and colleagues,
RE: Analyses Cast Doubts on Safety ofBtBrinjal
As the Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC), India's regulatory body for GE crops and foods, meets to look at the results of the two-year large scale trials of Bt Brinjalacross the country, new analyses of the data have emerged that cast doubts on the safety of the GM crop.
Professor Gilles-EricSeraliniof thetheFrance-based Committee for Independent Research and Information on Genetic Engineering (CRIIGEN) analysed Mahyco’s Bt brinjal biosafety data (the full study is available at: http://www.criigen.org/images/stories/Actualites/ActusOGM/btbrinjal-ges_%200109.pdf) and points out that Bt brinjal had not been
properly tested from the safety and environmental point of view, observing that in feeding trials significant differences were noted in animals fed with Bt brinjal compared to those fed non-Bt controls. He therefore concludes that "Clear significant differences were seen that raise food safety concerns and warrant further investigation. The GM Bt brinjal cannot be considered as safe as its non GM counterpart. Indeed, it should be considered as unsuitable for human and animal consumption."
Meanwhile, another analysis from Dr Judy Carman of the Institute of Health & Environmental Research, New Zealand, also concluded that the studies presented byMahyco cannot be used to show that GM brinjal is safe to eat, particularly when population health issues are taken into account. In particular it found that the studies presented byMahyco are simply inadequate to determine important matters concerning toxicology, allergy, and reproductive health.
In light of the two analyses, a network of medical experts from across the country called "Doctors for Food & Bio-Safety" has called for a moratorium on all open air trials of GM crops in India .
The doctors were concerned that the incorporation of antibiotic resistant markers in BtBrinjalis likely to have disastrous implications for developing countries like India which are struggling with communicable diseases burdens.
They further observed that the decreased calorific content (15% lesser) in BtBrinjaland altered consumption in different studies will mean impact on nutrition which an already malnourished public could avoid. Others, such as scientists, researchers, health professionals and environmentalists have also raised their voice against the introduction of the Bt Brinjal crop in view of its potentially negative effects on human beings and animals.
EFFECTS ON HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT OF TRANSGENIC (OR GM) BT BRINJAL
by Pr. Gilles-Eric SERALINI, University of Caen, France (January 2009)
SUMMARY
The dossiers submitted by Mahyco in support of their application for commercialisation of genetically modified (GM) Bt brinjal raise serious concerns. Most of these are not signed by researchers that have performed the tests on pages where they should be (signature frames empty), and could be considered as non valid. Bt brinjal has been modified to produce an unknown chimeric insecticide toxin containing Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac modified sequences. In the toxicity tests on target and non-target insects, this chimeric toxin has not been used but instead, an improper Cry1Ac toxin was used because this control was easier. This could also make these tests not valid. Moreover, Bt brinjal produces into the vegetable cells a protein inducing resistance towards at least kanamycin, a well known antibiotic. This is typical of the first generation
of GMOs which have been made without consideration of the problem. Antibiotic resistance is recognized to be a major health problem because of the growing development in the environment and bodies of antibiotic resistance genes. It is very inappropriate to consider commercialising a food containing an antibiotic resistance gene since several modern biotechnology companies have already developed transgenic plants without this kind of marker genes. It is possible that Mahyco has bought an old unused GMO technology to Monsanto Company. Bt brinjal has not been properly tested at a safety or an environmental point of view. However in feeding trials, numerous significant differences were noted compared to the best corresponding non-Bt controls: Bt brinjal appears to contain 15% less kcal/100 g, have a different alkaloïd content, and 16-17 mg/kg Bt insecticide toxin poorly characterized for side effects, and
produced by the plant genetically modified for this. Parameters affected in animals fed with this GMO are in blood cells or chemistry, but in different manners according to the period of measurement during the study or the sex: in goats prothrombin time is modified, and biochemical parameters such as total bilirubin and alkaline phosphatase are also changed, as well as feed consumption and weight gain. For rabbits less consumption was noted and also prothrombin time modification, higher bilirubin in some instances, albumin, lactose dehydrogenase and the hepatic markers alanine and aspartate aminotransferases. Sodium levels were also modified, as well as glucose, platelet count, mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration and haematocrit value. In cows milk production and composition were 10-14% changed. There was more milk and more roughage dry matter intake like if the animals were treated by a hormone.
Rats GM-fed had diarrhoea, higher water consumption, liver weight decrease as well as relative liver to body weight ratio decrease. Feed intake was modified in broiler chickens as well as glucose in some instances. Average feed conversion and efficiency ratios are changed in GM-fed fishes. All that makes a very coherent picture of Bt brinjal that is potentially unsafe for human consumption. It will be also potentially unsafe to eat animals with these problems, having eaten GMOs. These differences are most often not reported in the summaries of the different experiments but are in the raw data. These differences were, when discussed, disregarded, often on the grounds that they were within the range of a wide “reference” group (really larger than the real closest control group). This reference group represents a wide range of brinjal types and is not a strict comparison. Other reasons for disregarding
the differences were that they did not show linear dose response or time response, or that they were only present in either males or females, but not both. Such declarations that the differences seen are not of biological relevance are not substantiated by the data presented from the feeding trials. Clear significant differences were seen that raise food safety concerns and warrant further investigation. The GM Bt brinjal cannot be considered as safe as its non GM counterpart. Indeed, it should be considered as unsuitable for human and animal consumption. In addition, the longest toxicity tests which are for only 90 days do not assess long-term effects like the development of tumours or cancers.
It is almost impossible through measurements of toxicity to a few species of non-target organisms to get a sufficient view of possible harm to complicated ecosystems, which, moreover vary substantially from place to place in India. The experiments on the potential toxicity of GM Bt brinjal to non target organisms (such as butterflies and moths), to beneficial insects and to long-term soil health are woefully inadequate and give no assurances for the environmental safety of growing GM Bt brinjal. Indeed, in many cases the experiments were considered irrelevant (e.g. do not take indirect effects, such as effects up the food chain into account). The gene flow studies assess but not extensively and not in an adequate
manner the possibility of GM contaminations, in particular to neighbouring brinjal crops. This neglects other routes of contamination (e.g. by mixing seeds).
Based on these tests, Bt brinjal cannot be considered as safe. It is known anyway that natural Bt toxins have never been authorized as such for mammalian consumption. Artificial ones should not be either, before a more serious assessment. Significant effects in comparison to controls are also noticed with other GMOs tolerant to Roundup, and in total with at least four GMOs for which these kinds of tests have been done. These resemble classical side effects of pesticides in toxicology; and these have also been observed for MON810 maize producing a related insecticide which is present in part in the Bt brinjal, Cry1Ab.
Brinjal is known to have existed in India for 4000 years. Given that India is also a functional Centre of Origin of brinjal, any release of Bt Brinjal into the environment, poses a significant risk of contamination to sexually compatible wild species and consequent harm to the environment in addition to the contamination of Non-GM varieties. The commercialisation of Bt Brinjal will exacerbate that risk. The release of Bt brinjal for these reasons as well would be a problem.
The agreement for Bt brinjal release into the environment, for food, feed or cultures, may present a serious risk for human and animal health and the release should be forbidden.
A review of Mahyco's GM Brinjal food safety studies
Dr Judy Carman BSc (Hons) PhD MPH MPHAA
January 2009
Introduction
This document has been written in response to Mahyco's dossier in the public domain and a request for an appraisal of the data by lead Petitioner in the Supreme Court of India,Aruna Rodrigues.
Review
This review concentrates on the food safety evaluation done by Mahyco as reported in Chapter 7 of Volume 1 of their submission and critiques that section.
Compositional comparisons
One of the greatest concerns about the process of genetic engineering is that the actual process of inserting the gene may cause the plant to up-regulate or down-regulate the normal genetic expression of the plant and hence to produce more of something harmful to human health, or less of something beneficial to human health. An associated concern is that the insertion process may cause the plant to produce a novel substance for that plant. There are certainly examples of all of these effects appearing as a result of genetic engineering. Yet, the compositional analyses presented to the Indian Government by Mahycodo not assess these known likelihoods.
For example, the compositional comparisons concentrate on measuring moisture, protein, oil, ash, carbohydrates, calories for fruit tissue, nitrogen, ash and crude fibre. These are
extremely crude measures of the nutritional components of brinjal. A full protein analysis would have gone some way to determine if the plant was producing more, or less, ofsomething, or a completely new substance. Yet it was not done.
Moreover, according to page 104 of Mahyco's document, a sample size of only three Bt brinjal and three non-BT brinjal were used to determine the differences in compositionbetween the GM and non-GM brinjal. This is woefully inadequate to determine compositional differences between two crops. The composition of the two crops (the 'clinical' difference) would have to be profoundly different to be able to be picked up as a
statistical difference using such a tiny sample size. Also, the only real way of comparing the composition in this manner is to grow the GM and non-GM parent brinjal from which the GM brinjal was developed, side-by-side in the same field, under the same conditions of soil type, fertilizer, herbicides, insecticides, water, sunshine, etc, and then to use samples from these plants in the comparison studies. Only then can any differences between the GM and non-GM crops be determined to be due to the genetic insert and not due to confounders such as soil type, fertilizer, herbicides, insecticides, water, sunshine, etc. Yet Mahyco do not describe if their samples were obtained in this manner or not.
The analyses presented also do not take into account compositional differences found under different growing conditions in different areas of India. For example, no work seems to have been done on whether the concentration of harmful components of Bt brinjal increase under different climatic conditions, eg heat or water stress. In order to do this, the comparative growing study described above, where GM and non-GM parent brinjal are grown in the same field under identical conditions, would need to be repeated in various places in India under different climatic and soil conditions. These do
not appear to have been done.
In addition, as woefully inadequate as simple amino acid and fatty acid profiles are, even these do not appear to have been done by Mahyco. (Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, while fatty acids are the components of fats.)
Moreover, information about the chemical composition and alkaloid content measurements did not provide the following standard and required statistical information: the mean and standard deviation of each group, the nature of the statistical test done and the p-value resulting from the statistical test. Furthermore, the analysis of alkaloid content in GM brinjal does not even provide information as to how many brinjal were tested in each group. For the Cry1Ac protein estimation in brinjal after cooking, no cooking temperatures or samples sizes were given. Mahyco also appears not to have undertaken any studies to determine if the GM DNA in GM brinjal can degrade upon cooking.
GM crops are deemed to be substantially equivalent to non-GM crops until they fail some type of substantial equivalence test. Yet no decision has been made as to what this test should be; how compositionally different a GM crop needs to be from a non-GM crop to be regarded as different. To elaborate, if there had been a decision made that a GM crop is judged to be compositionally different if say 10% of its amino acids are statistically significantly different when fruit from 50 different brinjal plants are measured, or that a full protein analysis needs to be done and the GM brinjal needs to have all proteins within 10% of the levels present in non-GM brinjal, then there would be a clear hurdle that GM brinjal would need to clear to be deemed to be substantially equivalent. But there is no such hurdle. Instead, there is a bland
statement by the producers of GM brinjal that their crop is substantially equivalent without even describing the scientific criteria they have used to determine substantial equivalence or any pass/fail level they may have within these criteria.
Many of the errors described constitute errors of research methodology which can only be corrected by conducting appropriately-planned and executed research. Until this work is done, it cannot be stated that the composition of Bt brinjal is similar to ordinary brinjal.
In summary, the information submitted by Mahyco is completely inadequate to determine if the composition of Bt brinjal is similar or different to ordinary brinjal. Moreover, the
information presented do not meet accepted scientific standards of reporting.
Allergy assessments
To determine allergenicity of the Bt brinjal, Mahyco first did a paper-based analysis. It artificially split the GM protein that it expected to be produced (not any unexpected proteins) into smaller segments and compared the segments to certain databases of known allergens. It should be remembered that not all allergens are known, even in peanuts, and that, even for the known allergens, not all are represented in these databases.
Mahyco also reported a skin irritation test on rabbits and a mucous membrane test using vaginal tissue in rabbits on pages 113-116 of volume 1. For both studies, only three female rabbits were used for each treatment group and the animals followed for only 72 hours after exposure. The studies cannot be regarded as allergy tests as the test substance was only applied once. Allergies generally require repeated exposure to a substance before an allergy can be developed. Then, the more often the exposure, the worse the allergic reaction tends to get. Although clinical signs of matters such as toxicity and skin reaction were measured in this test, there is no description as to exactly what these involved and what would constitute an adverse finding. Moreover, no matter what measurements were taken, calculations indicate that even if all rabbits treated with the GM
material showed a severe adverse clinical effect compared to no rabbits suffering this effect in the non-GM-treated rabbits, the appropriate statistical test would be completely unable to find statistical significance due to the small number of animals used.
The methodology of the allergy study undertaken in Brown Norway rats does not meet the standards of allergy testing employed by other researchers that have found allergic reactions due to consumption of GM crops (1) and the full results were not given in the text.
Reproductive studies
Mahyco did not provide any reproductive studies and it therefore appears not to have done any, eventhough adverse reproductive effects have been found from eating other GM crops (2), (3). These results strongly indicate that reproductive studies should be required before any GM crop could be assessed as safe to eat.
Digestive studies
Digestive studies used an in vitro (in glass) method of determining how quickly the protein that is expected to be produced will break down in the intestine. No data appear to have been given for the digestibility of GM DNA. Such studies are notorious for providing false assurances about the digestibility of GM DNA and proteins. For example, such studies often use unrealistically high levels of stomach acid and digestive enzymes. The level of acid in a human stomach moves towards neutral once food enters it. The only real way to determine how quickly GM
DNA and protein are digested is to do experiments in animals or humans.
Several of these in vivo studies have shown that GM DNA can and does survive digestion and can be found in tissues of the body. A recent study in Italy found that GM DNA present in the feed of cows could even be found in milk on supermarket shelves (4).
Acute toxicity studies on animals
The results of these studies cannot be used to determine the safety of GM brinjal, as described below.
Acute toxicology test on mice
This test was not done using the GM proteins as expressed in the GM plant that people will be eating. Instead, Mahyco used proteins that were produced by GM bacteria that were engineered to produce the GM proteins. Mahyco appears not to have determined if the proteins are exactly similar in structure and function as those found in the plant, even though it is known that the expression of the same DNA in different organisms can produce proteins with different physiological effects1. Moreover, the study on the Cry1Ac protein used only 10 mice per group, a seriously insufficient number to determine the true clinical outcomes of these mice, while the number of mice used to test the NPTII protein is not given. It appears that body weight and
food consumption were the only real measurements taken for the Cry1Ac protein study because, while tissue samples were taken, they appear to only have been kept and not analysed. Furthermore, while pathological changes were seen in the 'gross necroscopy' in some mice, neither the nature of the necroscopy nor the nature of the changes were described. Nor were the nature of the statistical tests, the means, standard deviations and p-values of the analyses given.
Oral toxicity study on rats
This study used only 5 male and female rats per group, which is an completely inadequate number to determine the true toxicological effects of GM brinjal on these rats. To give just one example of how inadequate this is, the concentration of a key liver function enzyme in the blood, AST, gives a measure of the health of the liver. Male rats fed GM brinjal had a concentration of AST that was 48% and 63% higher than feeding rats non-GM brinjal. Yet, this clinically significant finding was not found to be statistically significant. Calculations indicate that adding just a single extra rat to each group to bring the number of rats to a still tiny 6 per group, would have made this difference statistically significant, which would in turn have indicated that feeding GM brinjal to male rats could cause liver
damage.
It appears that only one dose per rat was given and then the rats were followed for only 14 days. Food consumption, and only some haematology and biochemistry measurements were taken. It is normal to take 18-20 clinical biochemical measurements on blood from animals and humans to determine health. Yet only eight standard biochemical results are shown in the tables associated with this study. Only overwhelmingly adverse effects could be picked up this way using this number of animals for this time period and the study is simply inadequate to predict the effect of feeding this GM crop to 1.15 billion Indians for generations. Moreover, the company rarely reports the nature of the tests undertaken, the means, standard deviations, statistical tests undertaken or the p-values of the statistical analyses.
Animal feeding studies
Several animal feeding studies are presented in an effort to show that Bt brinjal is safe to eat. They include studies on fish, chickens, goats, rabbits, cows and rats. Most of these species are most unusual to use for human health studies, and many of the measurements taken on these animals are also unusual measures of human health. For example, chickens and fish are not even mammals. Chickens fly, lay eggs and do not suckle their offspring, swallow stones and grit to help grind their food, do not have human-like lungs or digestive systems and have kidneys that do not even produce urine. As chickens are clearly very different from humans, they therefore cannot be used as a model for human health. Using fish is worse. Besides the obvious differences in physiology involving things such as scales, lungs (humans cannot breathe underwater), and kidneys (fish kidneys
do not produce urine), they are not even warm-blooded animals. Many of these studies use death as an end-point. Death is not a measure of health. Most people know people who are alive but not healthy because they have serious illnesses such as cancer, diabetes, heart disease, liver disease or infectious diseases.
Realistically, these studies are more useful to reassure primary producers that if they feed their fish, chickens, goats, rabbits and cows the GM brinjal, their animals will grow large enough and survive for long enough for the animal to get a good price at market. Further evidence for this is given by the emphasis on measures such as death rate, weight gain, growth rates, feed conversion ratios, milk production and carcass yield in these studies.
Furthermore, there was no full description of the diets fed to the animals in any of these studies. There was no list of the macro-nutrients used such as carbohydrate, fat, protein (and the components of these, such as the nature of the amount and type of saturated and unsaturated fats and which plants or animals they came from). Nor were the micro-nutrients given, such as the levels of the various vitamins and minerals in the diet. Nor was there a full description as to the source of the components of the diet such as which grains were used and in what proportions. So there is no understanding as to the nutritional adequacy of the diets.
Furthermore, there is no understanding as to whether the diets were heat-treated before they were fed and how much heat may have been used. Heat can destroy proteins and antinutrients which might otherwise affect health. In addition, it does not appear that the various diets were analysed for other GM ingredients. Corn and particularly soy are often ingredients in laboratory diets and soy is certainly present in the fish and cow diets used by Mahyco.
Much of the soy produced in the world comes from the US and South America and much of this is GM. The presence of GM products such as GM soy is therefore a confounder in these studies and needs to be measured. It is possible that any effects due to eating GM brinjal could be swamped by the effects of animals eating GM soy.
The number of animals used in each of these experiments is also too small to be able to find statistical significance for anything but overwhelming clinical findings. Often there are only five or six animals per group. To use a simple example of how inadequate this is, if the death rate is compared between two groups and six animals are used in each of those groups, two thirds (67%) of animals have to die in one group and nil in the other before a statistical difference can be found. If only five animals are used per group, the situation becomes even worse. Now 80% of animals have to die in one group and nil in the other before statistical significance can be found. There is also no statement as to whether the animals used were inbred or outbred animals. The use of outbred animals generally requires more animals in each dietary group for most measures to obtain
statistical significance compared to using inbred animals. It is unlikely that Mahyco could source inbred laboratory fish, chickens, goats or cows.
While Mahyco's studies often report that measurements such as clinical chemistry were taken on blood, the results are rarely given. And even when they are given, it is unlikely that statistical significance could be found, given the low number of animals in each group.
Organs may be weighed and perhaps expressed as a percentage of the body weight, but a diseased organ can weigh much the same as a healthy one. Histology, where the organ is sectioned, stained and looked at under a microscope is the appropriate method of determining if an organ is healthy. Yet this seems to have been rarely done.
The only real health study that could be used by Mahyco to support its application for safety is a single rat study, which is why the company submitted the raw data associated with this study to the Indian government. In this instance, 10 rats per gender were used, the highest number of animals per group in any experiment. Again, studying this number of rats for only a few weeks is clearly woefully inadequate to determine the long-term health effects of 1.15 billion Indians eating GM brinjal for generations. An example of the inadequacy of the study's statistical power to find anything is shown by considering two matters. First, calculations indicate that if the number of female rats per group was increased to just 13, the 67% higher white blood cell count in the GM brinjal-fed group compared to a non-GM-fed group could reach statistical significance. Second, if
the number of rats were increased to just 16 per group, GM brinjal could be found to cause a significant difference (increase) in AST in blood. This result supports the previous finding from the rat toxicological study where if 6 rats per group had been used, male rats could have been found to have a significantly higher level of this liver enzyme. Put together, the results of the two rat experiments indicate that if more animals had been used, male rats may have been shown to have evidence of liver damage from eating GM brinjal.
The raw data of this study indicate that the rats were highly variable at the beginning of the study. The body weights of some groups varied by as much as 31% within a group at the start of the study. This is an unusually high amount of within-group variability for body weight, and with a sample size of only 10 per group, could have masked any between-group effects. Essentially, statistics is about finding a signal amongst the noise. If there is too much noise, the signal cannot be found even if it is strongly present. Having this much variability within each group adds noise, making it very hard to find any signal.
The blood biochemistry and haematology data are also quite limited. For example, it is normal to take 18-20 biochemical measurement in blood to determine the health of an animal. This study takes only seven.
Moreover, while Mahyco presented a lot of raw data for some studies, with its interpretation of that data, it left-out most of the data that would be required in a peer-reviewed scientific journal for most of its studies and when data was actually given, Mahyco often omitted a key part of the analysis, such as the actual statistical results, eg p-values. That is, Mahyco omitted much of the results of the research from the report. It is also clear that the researchers were not blinded as to which group was fed GM and which was fed non-GM diets, which could bias the results. Moreover, the environmental conditions under which the animals were kept appear to be unusually variable and the GM status of the feed was determined using an inaccurate protein method instead of a far more accurate
DNA method.
It appears that none of these studies has been published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal. This may be because the studies were not of a sufficient standard to be published.
Summary
While it appears the Mahyco has conducted a number of studies to show that Bt brinjal is safe to eat, in fact none of the studies are of any real use, for the following main reasons:
1. The type of studies undertaken are insufficient to be able to determine if GM brinjal is safe to eat. For example, there have been no reproductive studies and the studies that have been done often use animals and/or measurements that are inappropriate or insufficient measures of human health.
2. Of those studies undertaken, the methodology and results are often insufficiently reported to be able to determine what the studies were actually measuring or how various variables were measured. Included in this, the statistical results have not been reported to a suitable standard. For example, means, standard deviations, and pvalues, which would be required for any peer-reviewed scientific journal, are usually omitted.
3. The sample sizes are insufficient to be able to find statistical difference for many measurements even if real clinical differences are occurring between groups. Indeed, much of the research presented by Mahyco could be regarded as being burdened with Type II error. This type of statistical error occurs when sample sizes are so low that the study cannot realistically be expected to find a difference between groups of animals even if clinical differences are occurring.
Consequently, the studies presented by Mahyco cannot be used to show that GM brinjal is safe to eat, particularly when population health issues are taken into account. That is, if this GM brinjal comes into the Indian food supply, then every Indian will be eating it, resulting in 1.15 billion Indians exposed to the GM brinjal. Some of those exposed will be children or the elderly. Some of those exposed will already be ill with cancer, autoimmune problems, heart disease, diabetes, or infectious diseases. Because of the number of people exposed, if GM brinjal is later found to cause illness, it could cause significant economic and social problems for India. For example, if only 1 in 1,000 of exposed people
later gets ill, or has an underlying illness made worse, then over a thousand million Indians would be ill and requiring treatment. This would result in a huge cost to the Indian government and community. It is therefore important to ensure that the safety assessment of GM brinal is sound and thoroughly covers all the major concerns of toxicology, allergy, and reproductive health. The studies presented by Mahyco are simply inadequate to determine these matters.
References
1. Prescott, VE, Campbell PM, Moore A, Mattes J, Rothenberg ME, Foster PS, Higgins TJV, Hogan SP (2005). Transgenic expression of bean α-amylase inhibitor in peas results in altered structure and immunogenicity. J Agric Food Chem, 53:9023-9030.
2. Velimirov A, Binter C, Zentek J (2008). Biological effects of transgenic maize NK603xMON810 fed in long term reproduction studies in mice. Department/Universitätsklinik für Nutztiere und öffentliches Gesundheitswesen in der Veterinärmedizin Institut für Ernährung, Vienna, Austria.
3. Vecchio L, Cisterna B, Malatesta M, Martin TE, Biggiogera M (2004). Ultrastructural analysis of testes from mice fed on genetically modified soybean. European Journal of Histochemistry, 48:449-454.
4. Agodi A, Barchitta M, Grillo A, Sciacca S (2006). Detection of genetically modified DNA sequences in milk from the Italian market. Int J Hyg Environ-Health 209 :81– 88.
Doctors for Food & Bio-Safety call for a moratorium on GM crops/foods
Press Release, January 14 2009
New Delhi: As the Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC) sits down today for a 'discussion on BtBrinjalproposal under large scale trials' in the Ministry of Environment & Forests, eminent medical experts from across the country from a network called "Doctors for Food & Bio-Safety" called for a moratorium on all open air trials of GM crops in India. These experts, after perusing through the first independent analysis ofMahyco'sbiosafetydata of BtBrinjalby France 's CRIIGEN, sent a resolution to the GEAC to this effect.
They pointed out that the French analysis ofMahyco'sdata adequately addresses and questions the validity of the so called bio-safety data of BtBrinjalin terms of: validity of biological/ animal experiments carried out by the applicant incl. study design; Adequacy of bio-safety testing protocols used; Validity of statistical analyses carried out including sampling procedures; Glossing over/unscientific basis of overlooking important findings.
The doctors pointed out that the obsolete technology used in BtBrinjalincorporating antibiotic resistant markers is likely to have disastrous implications for developing countries like India which are struggling with communicable diseases burden. This may jeopardize National HealthProgrammesfor control of Tuberculosis (already struggling with MDR / XDR tuberculosis),diarrhoealdiseases, sexually transmitted diseases etc.
They further observed that the decreased calorific content (15% lesser) in BtBrinjaland altered consumption in different studies will mean impact on nutrition which an already malnourished public could avoid.
The changes inbilirubinindicate effect on hepatic functions. Study with lactating cows showed increased milk production indicating hormonal effects. If this is so, what are the implications on pregnancy,foetalhealth, reproductive functionsetc.There is an obvious requirement for longer term studies especially on reproductive health. Absence of these aspects inMahyco'sdossiers is not acceptable, the doctors said.
InAyurvedaandSiddha, herbs are used according to the taste (Rasa), medicinal property ofphyto-chemical (Guna), strength (Veerya), the end taste after digestion (VipaakaRasa) and synergistic medicinal property (Prabhaava). Any intrusion in the basic component of a drug may cause major change in the constitution of the drug, leading to unknown impacts. The difference insolamargineandsolasonineis the clear evidence of loss of synergy and imbalance in thephytomolecules, which may largely affect the therapeutic and nutritive benefit ofbrinjal. There is no study as part of the impact assessment done to study related aspects, they pointed out.
The doctors endorsed DrPushpaBhargava'scomments on the regulators compromising objectivity by basing their approval processes based on data submitted by the applicant itself and emphasized the need for mandatory independent research by mandatory elaborate protocols including for long term research.
Meanwhile, another independent analysis from Institute of Health & Environmental Research, New Zealand (led by Dr Judy Carman) to be submitted to the Supreme Court soon, also concluded that the studies presented byMahycocannot be used to show that GMbrinjalis safe to eat, particularly when population health issues are taken into account. This analysis points to insufficiency of the type of studies taken up for the safety assessment, that statistical results have not been reported to a suitable standard in addition to sample sizes being insufficient (type II errors).
For more information, contact: Dr G P I Singh at [0] 98-155-42987
Action Alert - Petition to Obama for MEANINGFUL GMO labeling
President Obama promised that genetically modified foods will require labels. Please sign the petition demanding comprehensive and meaningful GMO labeling; and thank him for giving us what we want, and deserve.
President Obama is finally going to get genetically modified (GM) foods labeledsomething 270 million Americans have wanted for a long time. The Bush, Clinton, and Bush I administrations denied it to us, ignoring 9 out of 10 citizens in order to support the economic interests of the 5 Ag biotech companies that make GMOs.
Former FDA man Henry Miller admitted, "In this area, the US government agencies have done exactly what big agribusiness has asked them to do and told them to do."
Why don't the biotech companies want us to know that their products are in our food? Because we wouldn't eat them. According to a CBS/New York Times poll, most of us (53%) would avoid brands with genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
Close labeling loopholes
Outside the US and Canada, nearly all industrialized countries require GMOs to be labeled. But clear, comprehensive, and consumer-friendly criteria remain elusive.
Japan's laws allow food with a whopping 5% GMO contamination to go unlabeled. In Australia and New Zealand, loopholes exempt about 90% of their GM foods from labeling. Their law says that GM ingredients must be detectable in the final processed food in order to require labels. Thus, oil made from 100% GM soybeans, corn, cottonseed or canola (the four major GM crops) is unlabeled.
These loose labeling regimes have consistently angered citizens and there is momentum for tightening standards. In the EU, for example, they used to exempt undetectable GMOs but now insist on labels if any ingredient is DERIVED BY GMOs. Thus, they require traceability of ingredients to their GMO or Non-GMO origins.
The EU has another loophole that upsets citizens there (which we must avoid here in the US). Milk, meat, and eggs from animals fed GMOs don't have to be labeled. Many groups are working hard to change this EU law. In the meantime several European food companies publicly committed not to use GMO animal feed.
In the US, corporations have traditionally had the upper hand when it comes to negotiating details of regulations. We don't want that to happen with labeling.
President Obama is going to give us labelinghe promised us that. But will it be the citizens' labeling plan or Monsanto's?
Sign the petition today demanding comprehensive and meaningful GMO labeling, and thank President Obama for giving us what we want, and deserve.
But don't wait for labeling to avoid GMOs. Download our Non-GMO Shopping Guide, which gives tips and brands to help you choose healthier non-GMO food.
----- Forwarded Message ---- From: Julia Tier <jtier@...> Subject: Genetically Modified Crops Grow as EU Debates Safety
FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE
Thursday, December 4, 2008
Contact: Julia Tier
(+1) 202.452.1992 x594
jtier@...
Genetically
Modified Crops Reach 9 Percent of Global Primary Crop Production, as European
Union Braces for Decision
Washington,
D.C.Genetically
modified crops reached 9 percent of global primary crop production in 2007,
bringing the total GM land area up to 114.3 million hectares, according to
Worldwatch Institute estimates published in the latest Vital Signs Update. The
United States continues to be the
global leader in production, accounting for half of all GM crop area.
GM production has
been on the rise since the crops were first introduced more than a decade ago,
and it now includes 23 countries. But controversy over the benefits of genetic
modification continues, including questions about the technologys
ability to deliver on promises of enhanced yields and nutrition.
GM crops are
definitely not a silver bullet, said Alice McKeown, a researcher for the
Worldwatch Institute. They sound good on paper, but we have yet to see
glowing results.
Even as GM crop
area expands, tensions are building. The European Union is expected to offer
new guidance on the crops by the end of the year. Meanwhile, a new
scientific study funded by the Austrian government suggests that a popular
variety of GM corn reduces fertility in mice, raising questions about the
technologys safety.
There are
still many unanswered questions about GM crops, said McKeown. But
the good news is that we have solutions to food security and other problems
available today that we know work and are safe for humans and the environment,
including organic farming.
END
Note to Editors:
To obtain the text of the Update, visit http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5950.For the full Update with references,
or to interview Alice McKeown,
please contact Julia Tier at jtier@... or (+1)
202.452.1999 x594.
Worldwatch
E-mail list: If you would like to receive
Worldwatch press advisories regularly or wish to be removed from this mailing
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About the Worldwatch Institute: Worldwatch Institute delivers the insights and
ideas that empower decision makers to create an environmentally sustainable
society that meets human needs. Worldwatch focuses on the 21st century
challenges of climate change, resource degradation, population growth, and
poverty by developing and disseminating solid data and innovative strategies
for achieving a sustainable society. For more information, visit www.worldwatch.org.
GM Maize Reduces Fertility & Deregulates Genes in
Mice
Comprehensive long term studies commissioned by the Austrian government
reveal that mice fed GM maize produced fewer and smaller litters with many genes
affected compared to controls. Dr.
Mae-Wan Ho
Austrian scientists carried out long term studies that showed GM maize fed
to mice significantly reduced their fertility over three to four breeding
cycles within one generation [1]. Similar effects were found in mice fed GM
maize and bred over four generations; although the results did not reach statistical
significance in any one generation, the trend was unmistakable, more pups
lost and smaller litters in the GM-fed mice.
The studies are by far the most meticulous and comprehensive
feeding trials to-date, and confirm deleterious reproductive and health impacts
obtained by scientists independent of the biotech industry and farmers observations
in the field. For a recent review, see [2] GM is Dangerous and Futile (SiS
40).
The new research results are a landmark in the safety assessment
of GM food. Most feeding trials were short-term and restricted to a single
generation or a single breeding cycle. The multi-generational study widely
cited as evidence of no long term adverse impacts from GM feed is highly misleading
as the experiment did not involve trans-generational feeding,
but merely breeding mice that were not GM fed for three generations,
and carrying out a separate experiment with GM feed for each generation
[3] (Letter to
Nature Biotechnology: Systematic bias in favour of no adverse impacts from
GM feed, SiS 37). There were other serious flaws in that experiment,
not least the failure to ascertain by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) that
the processed GM feed used actually contained GM soya.
Monsanto's man in the Clinton admin joins the transition team
by Tom Philpott
19 Nov 2008
EDITED
Whither Obama's food/ag policy?
The transition named its "team members" looking at energy and natural resources agencies, which includes USDA. The list includes Michael R. Taylor, a man who spent his career bouncing between the employ of GMO-seed giant Monsanto and Bill Clinton's FDA and USDA. Taylor is widely credited with ushering Monsanto's recombinant bovine growth hormone (rBGH) through the FDA regulatory process and into the milk supply. He was particularly useful in the effort to prevent abstaining dairies from advertising their milk as
rBGH-free.
---------- Forwarded message ---------- From: BILL FREESE<billfreese@...>
Center for Food Safety
Contact:
Bill Freese, Science Policy Analyst, Center for Food Safety, 202-547-9359
Andrew Kimbrell, Exec. Director, Center for Food Safety, 415-826-2770
Heath Fradkoff, Goodman Media, 212-576-2700
AUSTRIAN STUDY FINDS EATING GENETICALLY ENGINEERED CORN MAY REDUCE FERTILITY
Center for Food Safety Calls for Moratorium on Genetically Engineered Foods
Pending Thorough Safety Studies
Vienna, Austria, November 13, 2008 The Center for Food Safety cited results of an important study[1] released Monday by the Austrian government as cause for great concern over the long-term consumption of genetically engineered crops. The study found that mice fed a type of genetically engineered corn developed by the Monsanto Company produced fewer offspring than those fed conventional corn.
"This meticulous study suggests that a popular type of genetically engineered corn may harbor fertility-reducing substances," said Bill Freese, Science Policy Analyst at the Center for Food Safety and co-author of a peer-reviewed study on GE crop regulation. "It's no surprise to us that U.S. regulators did not catch this. None of our regulatory agencies require any long-term animal feeding trials before allowing genetically engineered crops on the market."
The study was sponsored by the Austrian Ministry of Health, Families, and Youth, and led by Dr. Jrgen Zentek, Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the University of Vienna.For 20 weeks, Zentek and his team fed mice diets consisting of either 33% genetically engineered (GE) corn, or 33% of a closely related non-GE variety.The diets were otherwise nutritionally equivalent.
Mice fed the GE corn diet had fewer litters, fewer total offspring, and more females with no offspring, than mice feed the conventional corn.The effects were particularly pronounced in the third and fourth litters, after the mice had consumed the GE corn for a longer period of time.The authors attributed the reduced fertility to the GE corn feed, and said it might be related to unintended effects of the genetic modification process.Dr. Zentek said that further studies are "urgently needed" to corroborate his team's findings.
"This study should serve as a wake-up call to governments around the world that genetically engineered foods could cause long-term health damage," said Andrew Kimbrell, Executive Director of the Center for Food Safety."The Center calls upon national and international authorities to place a moratorium on the distribution of GE products for human consumption unless or until their safety can be undeniably established."
"We hope this study will finally persuade the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to completely overhaul its 'rubber-stamp' regulatory process," added Freese."The FDA must stop letting biotech companies self-certify their GE crops as safe, and instead establish strict, mandatory testing requirements, including long-term animal feeding trials, for every GE crop," he added.
The Center notes that the GE corn used in the study (NK603 x MON810) was developed by the Monsanto Company, and is sold under the brand names YieldGard (Plus)/Roundup Ready.Monsanto's figures show that U.S. plantings of this GE corn have exploded in recent years, from just 2.2 million acres in 2002 to 38.2 million acres in 2008[2].The corn is a so-called "stacked" variety with two traits: the Roundup Ready trait allows the corn to survive direct spraying with Roundup herbicide, while a built-in insecticide kills certain above-ground insect pests.
The Center further notes that U.S. regulators allow biotech companies to cross GE crops at will to develop "stacked" crops with virtually any combination of traits without any regulatory oversight, despite expert warnings that stacked crops may pose special risks.
The Center for Food Safety is national, non-profit, membership organization founded in 1997 to protect human health and the environment by curbing the use of harmful food production technologies and by promoting organic and other forms of sustainable agriculture. On the web at: http://www.centerforfoodsafety.org
[2]NK603 is Roundup Ready corn, approved for commercial use by USDA in 2000.MON810 is YieldGard corn, approved in 1996.See http://www.aphis.usda.gov/brs/not_reg.html, under "Transformation Event or Line."For acreage figures, add US figures for YieldGard/Roundup Ready and YieldGard Plus/Roundup Ready at:
*Alimentos transgnicos: una amenaza para la fertilidad*
* *
*Un estudio revela que un maz modificado genticamente afecta a la reproduccin en ratones*
Un estudio hecho pblico por el Gobierno de Austria identifica graves amenazas para la salud por consumo de organismos modificados genticamente. Este estudio es uno de los escasos realizados a largo plazo de los efectos de los transgnicos en la alimentacin. Concluye que la fertilidad de los ratones alimentados con maz modificado genticamente se vio seriamente daada, con una descendencia menor que los ratones alimentados con maz convencional. Este maz est aprobado para alimentacin humana y animal en la Unin Europea y se ha cultivado de forma experimental en ms de 30 municipios espaoles. Considerando
la gravedad de esta potencial amenaza para la salud y
reproduccin humana, Amigos de la Tierra y Greenpeace exigen la retirada de los cultivos transgnicos actualmente en el mercado.
El estudio, patrocinado por los Ministerios de Agricultura y Sanidad de Austria, fue presentado ayer en un seminario cientfico en Viena. El Dr. Jrgen Zentek, Profesor de Medicina Veterinaria en la Universidad de Viena y coordinador del estudio resumi los hallazgos: los ratones alimentados con maz transgnico tuvieron menos descendencia en la tercera y cuarta generacin, y estas diferencias fueron estadsticamente significativas. Los ratones alimentados con maz no transgnico se reprodujeron de forma ms eficiente. Este efecto se puede atribuir a las diferencias en la alimentacin.
"Los alimentos transgnicos parecen actuar como un agente de control de la natalidad, conduciendo de forma potencial a la infertilidad. Si este motivo no es suficiente para plantear
la retirada de los cultivos transgnicos actualmente en el mercado, no se a que tipo de catstrofes estamos esperando" afirm Juan Felipe Carrasco, responsable de la campaa contra los transgnicos de Greenpeace "Experimentar genticamente con nuestros alimentos es como jugar a la ruleta rusa con los consumidores y con la salud pblica".
Los investigadores austriacos llevaron a cabo varios ensayos de alimentacin a largo plazo con ratones durante 20 semanas. Uno de estos estudios consisti en una Evaluacin de la Reproduccin mediante Cra Continua (RACB en sus siglas en ingls), en el que la misma generacin de padres tuvo varias camadas de ratones. Los progenitores fueron alimentados o bien con una dieta que inclua un 33% de una variedad de maz transgnico (NK 603 x MON 810), o bien a base de un maz parecido, pero no transgnico. Se encontr que la reduccin en el tamao de
la camada y su peso eran estadsticamente significativos en la tercera y cuarta camada en los ratones alimentados con transgnicos en comparacin con el grupo control.
Esta variedad de maz transgnico, propiedad de la multinacional Monsanto es tolerante a un herbicida y resistente a algunos insectos. Ha sido aprobada para su cultivo en varios pases, como EE.UU. o Argentina y en la Unin Europea [1] est aprobado para uso en alimentacin humana y animal. En Espaa, este maz ha sido adems cultivado de forma experimental al aire libre en ms de 30 municipios los ltimos tres aos [2]. Estos ensayos tienen el grave riesgo de contaminar los cultivos de maz destinados a la alimentacin. La variedad NK 603 x MON 810 es un hbrido de dos variedades transgnicas. Una de ellas, MON 810, se cultiva de forma comercial en Espaa, con ms de 80.000 hectreas sembradas en 2008.
"Este
estudio es un ejemplo ms de que no se puede garantizar la seguridad de los cultivos transgnicos. La toxicidad para la reproduccin que presenta este maz transgnico es un resultado totalmente inesperado. Pero las autoridades europeas lo declararon tan seguro como el maz convencional, un error con una consecuencias potenciales extremadamente graves" aadi David Snchez, responsable de Agricultura y Alimentacin de Amigos de la Tierra.
*Para ms informacin:*
Teresa Rodrguez, Prensa de Amigos de la Tierra: 91 306 99 00 - 680 936 327
Marta San Romn, Prensa de Greenpeace: 91 444 14 00 - 680 400 645
David Snchez Carpio, Responsable del rea de Agricultura y Alimentacin de Amigos de la Tierra, 91 306 99 21 -- 691 471 389
Juan-Felipe Carrasco, Responsable campaa de Transgnicos de Greenpeace, 91 444 14 00
*Notas:*
[1] En 2005, la Agencia Europea de Seguridad
Alimentaria (EFSA en sus siglas en ingls) dio luz verde a este maz. Sin realizar ningn estudio independiente, basndose solo en los datos de Monsanto, la EFSA afirm "se considera improbable que el maz NK603 x MON810 tenga ningn efecto adverso en la salud humana y animal". Esto es un claro ejemplo de que el modelo de evaluacin de riesgos de los cultivos transgnicos es defectuoso y est mal diseado.
[2] El Ministerio de Medio Ambiente autoriz en 2008 a la empresa Pioneer el cultivo experimental al aire libre de esta variedad en Dos Hermanas, Los Palacios-Villafranca, Marchena y Hutor Tjar en Andaluca; Gurrea de Gllego, Garrapinillos, Tauste, Puebla de Alfindn, Villafranca de Ebro y Nuez de Ebro en Aragn; Tarazona de la Mancha, Alpera y La Gineta en Castilla La Mancha; Rebollar de los Oteros, Llamas de la Ribera, Toral de los Guzmanes, Ataquines, Pelabravo, Villarrab y Olmos
de Ojeda en Castilla y Len; Alcarrs en Catalua; Villanueva de la Serena en Extremadura; San Martn de la Vega en Madrid y Santa Uxa de Ribeira, Mesa, Villalba, Chantada en Galicia
Pioneer ha experimentado en estos y en otros municipios, al menos en 2008, 2007 y 2006.
******
"It is wholly a confusion of ideas to suppose that
the economical use of fuel is equivalent to a diminished consumption.
The very contrary is the truth."
Environmental gains derived from the use of nanomaterials may be offset
in part bythe process used to manufacture them, according to
research published in a special issue of the Journal of Industrial
Ecology.
The Journal of
Industrial Ecology is a peer-reviewed bimonthly owned by Yale
University, headquartered at the Yale School of Forestry &
Environmental Studies and published by Wiley-Blackwell.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Special Issue of J. of Industrial Ecology: Nanomaterials May Have Large Environmental Footprint
According to a paper by Hatice Sengl and colleagues at the
University of Illinois at Chicago, strict material purity requirements,
lower tolerances for defects and lower yields of manufacturing processes
may lead to greater environmental burdens than those associated with
conventional manufacturing. In a study of carbon nanofiber production,
Vikas Khanna and colleagues at The Ohio State University found, for
example, that the life cycle environmental impacts may be as much as 100
times greater per unit of weight than those of traditional materials,
potentially offsetting some of the environmental benefits of the small
size of nanomaterials.
Materials engineered at dimensions of 1 to 100 nanometers (1 to 100
billionths of a meter) exhibit novel physical, chemical and biological
characteristics, opening possibilities for stunning innovations in
medicine, manufacturing and a host of other sectors of the economy.
Because small quantities of nanomaterials can accomplish the tasks of
much larger amounts of conventional materials, the expectation has been
that nanomaterials will lower energy and resource use and the pollution
that accompanies them. The possibility of constructing miniature devices
atom-by-atom has also given rise to expectations that precision in
nanomanufacturing will lead to less waste and cleaner processes. Research
described in this special issue suggests that these anticipated benefits
remain to be realized.
Other topics explored in the special issue include:
Approaches for identifying and reducing the life cycle hazards of
nanomaterials
Quantified life cycle energy requirements and environmental impacts
from nanomaterials
Tradeoffs between nanomanufacturing costs and occupational exposure
to nanoparticles
Efficiency of techniques for nanomaterials synthesis
Improvement of the sustainability of bio-based products through
nanotechnology
Industrial frameworks for responsible nanotechnology
Industrial and public perception about the risks and benefits of
nanomaterials
Governance and regulation of nanotechnology
Industrial ecology is a field that examines the opportunities for
sustainable production and consumption, emphasizing the importance of a
systems view of environmental threats and remedies.
Roland Clift, Professor of Environmental Technology in the Centre for
Environmental Strategy at the University of Surrey and Shannon Lloyd,
Principal Research Engineer in the Sustainability & Process
Engineering Directorate at Concurrent Technologies Corporation, served as
guest editors. Support for this special issue was provided by the
Educational Foundation of America, in Westport, Conn., and the Project on
Emerging Nanotechnologies of the Woodrow Wilson International Center for
Scholars in Washington, D.C.
The evidence
is clear: industrial agriculture is out; GM agriculture is worse and unsafe.
Organic agriculture, on the other hand, can feed the world, and feed
it well, as Catherine Badgley and colleagues in the University of Michigan
have shown by a careful analysis of data already published [32], and as many
other studies have confirmed in ISIS own report [33] (Food
Futures Now *Organic *Sustainable *Fossil Fuel Free). Especially relevant is the project carried
out by Sue
Edwards and colleagues at the Ethiopian Institute of Sustainable Development
in Tigray over a period of seven years, documenting how compost produced yields
30 per cent greater than chemical fertilisers. (Not surprisingly, crops treated
with chemical fertiliser did better than those that were not treated at all,
so if this had been a Green Revolution project it would be claimed as a great
triumph for chemicals.)
A couple of years ago, some ordinary rice in the USA became contaminated with GM rice that was being
trialled. This was not picked up by the Americans, which shows how feeble
their testing is, but was noticed in Europe. The authorities were slow to act, the UK worst of all [34] (GM Rice Contamination How Regulators Tried to Sidestep
the Law, SiS 32), but the consumers would not tolerate it.
You can see just how strongly they objected from a packet of rice found in
a London greengrocer. The original
label described the contents as American Long Grain Rice, but this apparently
referred to the variety of rice, not its origin. So the distributor had covered
it with a new label, informing the consumer that this was Long Grain (Non
USA Origin): Please Ignore All References to the USA.
Can GM be stopped? Yes, it can, if consumers refuse to buy it and if farmers
refuse to grow it. That little package of rice reminds you what can happen
when consumers will not buy something they dont trust and dont want. And
if consumers dont want to buy GM, farmers have even less reason to grow it.
Among the strongest critics of the lax US regulation and quality control that allowed contaminated
rice to be exported were American rice farmers who saw their overseas markets
disappear.
And when governments and industry give up devoting so much time, effort and
resource to what even the IAASTD considers to be a side issue as far as feeding
the world is concerned, we will be able to concentrate on measures that will
really make a difference.
This article
is based on lectures delivered at the International Conference on Climate
Change, GMOs and Food Security, held on 1-2 October, 2008, in New Delhi. India, and the Forum on Genetically
Modified Organisms: Have GMOs Delivered? held on 16
October 2008 in Manila, Philippines.
Ms
de una dcada despus de la introduccin comercial de cultivos y
alimentos genticamente modificados (GM), o transgnicos, la
controversia que les rodea slo parece crecer, como bien se ha
documentado en informes recientes del Programa de las Amricas.1 Cuales son los impactos ambientales y socioeconmicos de estos cultivos? Son seguros para consumo?
Estas interrogantes son especialmente relevantes para Amrica
Latina, pues es la regin productora y exportadora de transgnicos ms
grande del mundo despus de Estados Unidos y Canad.2
Argentina y Brasil son, respectivamente, el segundo y el tercer mayor
productor de cultivos transgnicos en el mundo, Paraguay es sptimo y
Uruguay noveno. Argentina sola es responsable de 19% del rea sembrada
de transgnicos del mundo.
Qu herramientas metodolgicas existen para evaluar los riesgos de
esta nueva tecnologa? Tales mtodos, procedimientos y lneas de
investigacin han sido gradualmente desarrollados a lo largo de las
ltimas dos dcadas y son colectivamente conocidos como "bioseguridad".
La bioseguridad es un nuevo y creciente campo dedicado
especficamente a atender las preocupaciones en torno a la seguridad e
inocuidad de la ingeniera gentica y los organismos transgnicos.
Reconoce que los organismos transgnicos son esencialmente distintos de
sus contrapartes no transgnicos y que por lo tanto presentan riesgos
nicos y sin precedentes que requieren de una evaluacin de riesgo
apropiada.
Estas preocupaciones son atendidas a nivel internacional por el
Protocolo de Bioseguridad de las Naciones Unidas, conocido tambin como
el Protocolo de Cartagena.3
"Por primera vez en el derecho internacional hay un reconocimiento
implcito de que los organismos genticamente modificados (OGM) son
inherentemente distintos de los organismos de origen natural, y traen
riesgos y peligros especiales, y por lo tanto necesitan tener un
instrumento legal con fuerza de ley", dice Lim Li Lin, coordinadora del
Programa de Bioseguridad de la Red del Tercer Mundo.4
"El Protocolo reconoce que los OGM pueden tener impactos sobre la
biodiversidad, la salud humana y de ndole socioeconmica, y que estos
impactos deben ser objeto de evaluaciones de riesgo o tomados en
consideracin a la hora de tomar decisiones sobre transgnicos."
El Protocolo, firmado por 147 pases para el verano de 2008, fue
adoptado en 2000 tras aos de contenciosas negociaciones y entr en
vigor en septiembre de 2003.5
Su ratificacin fue lograda gracias a los esfuerzos de las delegaciones
de pases en vas de desarrollo, organizadas como el "Grupo de Igual
Parecer".
En el bando opuesto, las delegaciones de pases que no queran un
protocolo con fuerza de ley y que eran hostiles incluso al concepto
mismo de bioseguridad, estaba el "Grupo de Miami". Este pequeo pero
poderoso grupo fue dirigido por Estados Unidos e incluy a Argentina,
Chile y Uruguay. Ninguno de los miembros del Grupo de Miami ha firmado
el Protocolo.6
Para firmar el Protocolo los pases deben tambin ser miembros de la
Convencin de Biodiversidad de la ONU (CBD), un acuerdo internacional
para la proteccin y uso sustentable de la biodiversidad firmado por
191 pases para el verano de 2008.7
La Convencin fue firmada inicialmente en la Conferencia de la ONU
sobre Ambiente y Desarrollo, conocida tambin como la Cumbre de la
Tierra, que tom lugar en Brasil en 1992. Estados Unidos se neg a
firmar la CBD y el Protocolo, pero un nmero de productores de
transgnicos lo firmaron, incluyendo Brasil.8
El Protocolo se negocia regularmente en sesiones conocidas como las
reuniones de las partes (MOP, por sus siglas en ingls). Las MOP toman
lugar justo antes de la reunin bi-anual de la CBD, conocida como la
Conferencia de las Partes (COP, por sus siglas en ingls), por lo cual
se les conoce conjuntamente como las COP-MOP. Las ltimas reuniones
COP-MOP tomaron lugar en Curitiba, Brasil (2006), y Bonn, Alemania
(2008). La prxima ser en Nagoya, Japn, en 2010.
El Protocolo y el campo de la bioseguridad se fundamentan sobre el
principio precautorio, un concepto cientfico formulado para ayudar con
la proteccin de la salud humana y el ambiente ante factores de riesgo
e incertidumbre. El principio postula que cuando la sociedad balancea
riesgos causados por actividades humanas (como por ejemplo la
introduccin de nuevas tecnologas), la falta de certeza cientfica no
deber ser usada como excusa para no tomar accin preventiva para
proteger la salud humana y el ambiente.9 Hay referencias al principio en el Artculo 1 del Protocolo y en el Principio 15 de la Declaracin de Ro,10 un documento de consenso producido en la Cumbre de la Tierra.
El principio precautorio pone el peso de la duda en los promotores
de nuevas tecnologas y no sobre aquellos que expresan reservas y
advierten sobre peligros. "En el uso general de la tecnologa, aquellos
que alegan la existencia de efectos no probados se han visto obligados
a demostrar que la actividad en cuestin causa dao a la salud y el
ambiente", dice Anne Ingeborg Myhr, del Instituto de Ecologa Gentica
de Noruega.11
"Con el empleo del principio precautorio, la carga de la prueba se
traslada al proponente, que ahora necesita demostrar que la actividad
es necesaria y que no perjudicar la salud o el ambiente. Esto se
refleja en el Protocolo de Cartagena."
Sin embargo, ni en la Declaracin de Ro ni en el Protocolo se
mencionan las palabras "principio precautorio". En ambas instancias la
delegacin estadounidense y sus aliados (en el caso del Protocolo, el
Grupo Miami) lograron exitosamente impedir que se mencionara y que se
sustituyera por el ambiguo trmino "acercamiento precautorio".
Es por esto que el Principio 15 de la Declaracin de Ro dice: "Con
el fin de proteger el ambiente, el acercamiento precautorio ser
ampliamente aplicado por los estados de acuerdo a sus capacidades.
Donde hay amenazas de daos serios o irreversibles, la falta de
completa certeza cientfica no ser usada como razn para posponer
medidas costo-efectivas para prevenir la degradacin ambiental."
Adems, el Grupo Miami pudo eliminar cualquier referencia a
organismos genticamente modificados y sustituirlas con el ambivalente
trmino "organismos vivos modificados."
Los transgnicos, Son seguros o no?
A pesar de las aseguranzas de la industria de biotecnologa y la
Administracin de Medicamentos y Alimentos de Estados Unidos (FDA por
sus siglas en ingls), hasta el da de hoy no se ha demostrado que los
alimentos GM sean seguros. La FDA no realiza sus propios estudios sobre
productos transgnicos. Lo nico que hace es aceptar estudios hechos
por las compaas de biotecnologa sobre sus productos GM. La mayora
de estos estudios son informacin confidencial empresarial, y por lo
tanto no estn sujetos a escrutinio pblico.
"El consultar la FDA sobre la seguridad de alimentos transgnicos es
un ejercicio puramente voluntario, en el que la agencia recibe
resmenes sin datos y conclusiones sin fundamento", dice el
investigador Jeffrey Smith en su excelente libro Genetic Roulette
(Ruleta Gentica). "Si la compaa alega que sus alimentos son seguros,
la FDA no tiene ms preguntas. Por lo tanto, se aprueban para venta
variedades transgnicas que nunca fueron alimentadas a animales en
estudios de seguridad rigurosos y probablemente nunca a humanos
tampoco."
La FDA "depende casi totalmente de la notificacin voluntaria de las
compaas de biotecnologa de que llevaron a cabo su propia evaluacin
de seguridad de los cultivos GM que quieren difundir comercialmente",
segn los cientficos hngaros Arpad Pusztai y Susan Bardocz. "La FDA
no tiene laboratorio propio y nunca subvenciona la seguridad de
cultivos y alimentos transgnicos".
La agencia llev a cabo sus propias pruebas sobre alimentos GM slo
una vez. Los documentos ahora desclasificados de esta investigacin
muestran que los cientficos de la agencia estaban divididos en cuanto
a la seguridad de estos productos y que algunos de ellos abiertamente
expresaban reservas acerca de ellos. Sin embargo la FDA aprob los
alimentos transgnicos para uso de consumidores.
La literatura cientfica publicada sobre las implicaciones de salud
humana de alimentos GM consiste de apenas ms de 20 estudios, un nmero
alarmantemente bajo. En un estudio publicado en Nutrition and Health,
I.F. Pryme y R. Lembcke observan que los estudios sobre alimentos
transgnicos que no son financiados por la industria tienden a
encontrar problemas con serias implicaciones para la salud humana,
mientras que los que son financiados por la industria nunca encuentran
ningn problema. Un informe de William Freese y David Schubert titulado
"Safety Testing and Regulation of Genetically Engineered Foods"
(Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering Reviews, 2004) concluye que el
proceso de evaluacin de alimentos GM en Estados Unidos no es efectivo,
ya que se basa en investigacin pobre y premisas errneas.
Las pocas instancias en las que pruebas de seguridad realizadas por
la industria han salido a la luz pblica han dado bastante razn para
uno preocuparse. Un informe interno de Monsanto filtrado en 2005 revel
que ratas alimentadas con su maz transgnico Mon 863 tuvieron
problemas de salud significativos, incluyendo conteos de clulas
blancas sanguneas anormalmente altos, necrosis del hgado, reduccin
en el peso de los riones y altos niveles de azcar en la sangre.
El tema de la ingeniera gentica se complica ms an debido a que
sus productos son organismos vivos, que puedena diferencia de los
productos de otras tecnologasreproducirse y esparcirse. Este proceso
se conoce como contaminacin gentica. En las palabras de la biloga
agrcola suiza Angelika Hilbeck, "la difusin de organismos biolgicos
capaces de reproduccin es potencialmente irreversible y aade una
dimensin de complejidad a introducciones tecnolgicas previas."
El GMO Contamination Register, un servicio informativo establecido
por Greenpeace Internacional y Genewatch UK, ha reportado 142
instancias de contaminacin gentica alrededor del mundo desde 1996.
Brasil es uno de nueve pases que ha reportado ms de cinco incidentes
de contaminacin.
La presencia furtiva de maz transgnico en Mxico, donde est
prohibido por ley, fue reportada por primera vez por los cientficos de
la Universidad de California Ignacio Chapela y David Quist en la
revista Nature en 2001. Cientficos y institutos pro-industria
llevaron a cabo una campaa de gran envergadura para desacreditar los
hallazgos de Chapela y Quist, pero en 2002 un estudio comisionado por
el gobierno mexicano encontr que 95% de los campos de maz en los
estados de Oaxaca y Puebla tenan contaminacin gentica.
El prembulo del Protocolo dice: "En concordancia con el
acercamiento precautorio contenido en el Principio 15 de la Declaracin
de Ro sobre Ambiente y Desarrollo, el objetivo de este Protocolo es
contribuir a asegurar un nivel adecuado de proteccin en el mbito de
la transferencia, manejo y uso seguros de organismos vivos modificados
resultantes de la biotecnologa moderna que puedan tener efectos
adversos sobre la conservacin y uso sustentable de la diversidad
biolgica, teniendo tambin en cuenta riesgos a la salud humana y
especficamente enfatizando los movimientos transfronterizos."
Establecer, como principio de Poltica
Pblica, que el desarrollo de la biotecnologa ser
exclusivamente para el beneficio de la humanidad; cualquier
beneficio econmico que se derive de la investigacin
o implantacin de la biotecnologa y la ingeniera
gentica estar subordinada a este principio.
Legislar para prohibir el que se trastoquen
genes en fetos y adultos humanos con el fin exclusivo de
conseguir ciertas caractersticas hereditarias alegadamente
deseables.
Prohibir que se utilice la informacin
gentica de una persona con el fin de determinar sus
habilidades, debilidades, tendencias, aptitudes y cualquier otra
condicin o rasgo que permita la posibilidad de discriminar
contra o a favor de esa persona.
Dada la existencia de empresas en Puerto Rico que
experimentan con la constitucin gentica y la siembra
de distintos cultivos alterados genticamente, proponemos que
a travs de legislacin se mantenga un conocimiento
a nivel gubernamental y pblico, de todo proceso y resultados
de alteracin gentica en plantas, animales o
microorganismos, incluyendo las caractersticas especficas
buscadas o encontradas; cualquier desarrollo, investigacin e
implantacin de procesos tcnicos, comerciales e
industriales en lo sucesivo, se tendr que autorizar por
entidades gubernamentales capacitadas y competentes en la materia,
luego de revisar y aceptar los resultados de estudios sobre los
beneficios y desventajas del proceso.
Asegurar, a travs de legislacin,
que todo organismo vivo, alterado genticamente no pueda
ser liberado a propsito o accidentalmente a la vida
silvestre en la medida que no se conozca los efectos a corto y largo
plazo de dicha accin.
Obligar la admisin en la etiqueta de
todo producto alimentario o para cualquier tipo de consumo
humano o animal que haya sido alterado genticamente o que
uno de sus componentes haya sido alterado de esta forma, para que el
consumidor pueda tener la opcin de consumirlo o rechazarlo
conscientemente.
Estimular a nivel pblico y privado la
investigacin sobre la utilizacin de la biotecnologa
para necesidades nacionales. Por ejemplo, la produccin
de microorganismos que puedan metabolizar contaminantes persistentes
CONSUMER RIGHTS RECOGNISED: GM FOODS WILL BE LABELLED IN SOUTH AFRICA
Wednesday 17 September 2008
Cape Town: History was made yesterday when the Department of Trade and
Industry handed down a ruling for mandatory labelling of genetically
modified foods.
The decision came after a clause to this effect, which had been removed
from the draft Consumer Protection Bill last year, was
reinstated.National Co-ordinator of SAFeAGE, a consumer GMO watchdog
that has been lobbying for two years to have this clause reinstated
said, "The GMO Act does not protect consumers, it is rather a
permitting system that welcomes untested, unlabelled and irresponsible
genetic modification to run rife in our country. Consumers will finally
have the right to choose once this Bill is implemented".
Parliament's Trade and Industry committee also withdrew a clause from
the original Bill that rendered GMOs exempt from liability for damage
caused by them. "Why should food that has been spliced with virus,
anti-biotic resistant and herbicide genes be exempt from liability,"
questioned Treherne."These foods should be subject to more stringent
labelling, not exemption."
The Department of Trade and Industry's labelling laws have not gone
unopposed. Both the Department of Agriculture and Department of Health
have opposed mandatory labelling saying it would send out a confusing
signal to consumers. However, spokesperson for the Safe Food Coalition,
Andrew Taynton said that "the Department of Trade and Industry should
be congratulated for this bold move. Current GM labelling laws in South
Africa are so flawed that they do not label any of the GM foods
currently on the market."
Mariam Mayet of the African Centre for Biosafety (ACB) commented that
"government has embarked upon the first step towards regulating
agribusiness involved with GMOs. Not only have consumers been given a
choice to reject GM foods, now, GM food can also be tracked from farm
to fork in order to hold Monsanto and others liable when we discover
that something has gone wrong."
Treherne was however concerned that the Department of Agriculture would
still be responsible for determining the thresholds and technical
requirements of these new regulations, saying, "We hope this does not
undermine the excellent work done by Parliament and the Department of
Trade and Industry on the Consumer Protection Bill.
-Clause 61 was removed from the Draft Bill, which read ..........
-Approximately 60% of our maize crop is GM, 70% of our soya crop, and
90% of our cotton crop is now genetically modified.South Africa also
imports GM canola oil used in vegetable oils and margarine. Rice,
beans, wheat, fresh fruit and vegetables are still non-GM
-SAFeAGE recently released the results of random tests conducted on a
number of food products, including breakfast cereals, baby foods and
staple foods. Some breakfast cereals include a high content of
genetically modified organisms (GMO's) while one of the baby products
contained a staggering 97.49%.
-The GMO Executive Council is currently assessing an application to
bring a new GM food crop onto the market, potatoes. Potato SA is
opposing the application.
African heritage crops threatened by South African GMO decision
For Immediate Release: African Centre for Biosafety and GRAIN
Friday, 12 September 2008
Johannesburg
- An Appeal Board established by the Minister of Land Affairs and
Agriculture has overturned a landmark decision by a South African GMO
authority on 15 June 2006, to refuse the experimentation of sorghum, a
prized African heritage crop. The Council for Scientific Industrial
Research (CSIR), has now been given the go-ahead to proceed with the
development of 'Super Sorghum' in a containment level three facility.
The research is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation's
African Biofortified Sorghum (ABS) project. The Gates Foundation is
also heavily funding the 'New Green Revolution for Africa', aimed at
industrialising African agriculture.
The African Centre for
Biosafety (ACB), which objected to the initial application by the CSIR,
has condemned the decision, stating that experimentation with GM
sorghum will inevitably result in the contamination of Africa's prized
sorghum heritage. Haidee Swanby of the African Centre for Biosafety,
comments: 'Sorghum is a key staple crop for over 500 million people on
the continent. The risks posed by GM sorghum to wild and weedy
relatives cannot be tolerated at all and the granting of this permit is
tantamount to a licence to taint Africa's heritage.'
The ACB
points out that the ABS project is being developed for commercial
release and the CSIR will be seeking permission for field trials soon.
The original objection of the GMO authority of 15 June 2006 was based
on concerns regarding contamination of Africa's biodiversity.
Containment in a level three facility will not negate these concerns
for field trails, and the risks to African varieties remain.
Elfrieda
Pschorn-Strauss, programme officer for GRAIN Africa, an organisation
that promotes the sustainable management and use of agricultural
biodiversity, concludes, 'It is not for the South African government to
decide, on behalf of the rest of Africa, that they may approve an
industrial project which will result in the inevitable contamination of
Africa's astounding genetic diversity in sorghum. This crop has been
developed and cared for by farmers for over 5 000 years.'
-- ENDS --
For more information contact:
Haidee Swanby, African Centre for Biosafety, Researcher and Outreach Officer +27 (0) 82 459 8548 haidee@... www.biosafetyafrica.net
African
Centre for Biosafety (ACB) is a non-profit organisation, working to
protect Africa's biodiversity, traditional knowledge, food production
systems, culture and diversity, from the threats posed by genetic
engineering, biopiracy, agrofuels and generally, industrial agriculture.
GRAIN
is an international non-governmental organisation (NGO) which promotes
the sustainable management and use of agricultural biodiversity based
on people's control over genetic resources and local knowledge.